The History And Uses Of Bioremediation

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation The past decade has shown, in greater or lesser degree, our carelessness and negligence in using our natural resources. The problems associated with contamination of natural resources are prominently increasing in many countries. Contaminated environment generally result from production, use, and disposal of hazardous substances from industrial activities. The problem is worldwide, and the estimated number of contaminated sites is significant. It is now widely recognized that contaminated environment is a potential threat to human health, and its continual discovery over recent years has led to international efforts to remedy many of these sites, to enable the site to be redeveloped for use. To bioremediate, means to use living things to eliminate environmental contamination such as contaminated soil or groundwater. Some microorganisms that live in soil and groundwater naturally eat certain chemicals that are harmful to people and the environment. The microorganisms are able to change these chemicals into water and harmless gases, such as carbon dioxide. Plants can also be used to clean up soil, water or air; this is called phytoremediation Bioremediation is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various con ­taminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology tech ­niques, which generally have a high public acceptance and can often be carried out on site. It will not always be suitable, however, as the range of contaminants on which it is effective is limited, the time scales involved are relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable may not always be appropriate. Although the methodologies employed are not technically complex, considerable experi ­ence and expertise may be required to design and implement a successful bioremediation program, due to the need to thoroughly assess a site for suitability and to optimize conditions to achieve a satisfacto ­ry result. Bioremediation has been used at a number of sites worldwide Here, we intended to assist by providing a straightforward, pragmatic view of the processes involved in bioremediation, the pros and cons of the technique, and the issues to be considered when dealing with a proposal for bioremediation. HISTORY Bioremediation has been described as a treatability technology that uses biological activity to reduce the concentration or toxicity of a pollutant. It commonly uses processes by which microorganisms transform or degrade chemicals in the environment (King 1). This use of microorganisms (mainly bacteria) to destroy or transform hazardous contaminants is not a new idea. Microorganisms have been used since 600 B.C. by the Romans and others to treat their wastewater. Although this same technology is still usedtoday to treat wastewater it has been expanded to treat an array of other contaminants. In fact, bioremediation has been used commercially for almost 30 years. The first commercial use of a bioremediation system was in 1972 to clean up a Sun Oil pipeline spill in Ambler, Pennsylvania CONVENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF REMEDIATION The conventional techniques used for remediation have been to dig up contaminated soil and remove it to a landfill, or to cap and contain the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling, and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and contain method is only an temporary solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitor ­ing and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants if possi ­ble, or at least to transform them to innocuous substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (e.g., base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). They can be very effective at reducing levels of a range of contaminants, but have several drawbacks, principally their technological complexity, the cost for small-scale appli ­cation, and the lack of public acceptance, especially for incineration that may increase the exposure to contaminants for both the workers at the site and nearby residents. Conventional ways of Bioremediation Dig up and remove it to a landfill Risk of excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material Very expensive to find another land to finally dispose these materials Cap and contain the contaminated area. Maintain it in the same land but isolate it Only an temporary solution Requires monitoring and maintenance of isolation barriers for a long time Better approaches: Destroy them completely, if possible Transform them in to harmless substances Drawbacks Technological complexity The cost for small scale application expensive Lack of public acceptance especially in incineration Incineration generates more toxic compounds Materials released from imperfect incineration cause undesirable imbalance in the atmosphere. Ex. Ozone depletion Fall back on earth and pollute some other environment Dioxin production due to burning of plastics leads to cancer May increase the exposure to contaminants, for both workers and nearby residents PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION Figure 1: Bioremediation Triangle There are three essential components needed for bioremediation. These three components are microorganisms, food, and nutrients. These three main components shown in Figure 1 are known as the bioremediation triangle. Microorganisms are found almost everywhere on earth with the exception of active volcanoes. So a lack of food and nutrients are usually the missing ingredients that prevent successful bioremediation. Microorganisms find the food they eat in the soil or water where they live. However, if a contaminant is present it can become an additional food source for the microorganisms. The contaminant serves two useful purposes for the microbes. First, the contaminant provides a source of carbon needed for growth. Second,the microbes obtain energy by breaking chemical bonds and transferring electrons away from the contaminant. This is known as an oxidation-reduction reaction. The contaminant that loses electrons is oxidized and the chemical that gains the electrons(electron acceptor) is reduced. The energy gained from the electron transfer is used along with the carbon and some electrons to produce more cells. Microbes generally use oxygenas an electron acceptor but nitrate, sulfate, iron, and CO2 are also commonly used. The use of oxygen as an electron acceptor is called aerobic respiration. The major byproducts of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide, water, and an increase in the microbe population. Anaerobic respiration uses nitrate, sulfate, iron, or CO2 as the electron acceptor instead of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration can occur after the oxygen has been depleted by aerobic respiration or where there is not sufficient oxygen in the first place. The process of anaerobic degradation has been ignored for many years. However, recently it has been gaining more attention; There are also several nutrients that must be accessible to the microorganisms for bioremediation to be successful. These include moisture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other trace elements. Microorganisms like other organisms need moisture to survive and grow.In addition, microbes depend on the moisture to transport food to them since they do not have mouths. The optimal moisture content for microbes in the vadose zone has been determined to be between 10 and 25% (King 16). Besides moisture, nitrogen (ammonia)and phosphorus (orthophosphate) are two major nutrients needed for the microorganisms. The microorganisms also require minor elements such as sulfur, potassium, magnesium,calcium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc (King 19). However, these minor elements are usually available in the environment in sufficient amounts where nitrogen and phosphorus may be lacking and need to be added. There are many contaminants susceptible to bioremediation. Petroleum hydrocarbons, i n particular, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), the major components of gasoline, have been biodegraded using this technology. In addition, alcohols, ketones, and esters are well established as being biodegradable by microorganisms. Many other contaminants are emerging as treatable using bioremediation such as halogenated aliphatics, halogenated aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and nitroaromatics. FACTORS AFFECTING BIOREMEDIATION The factors affecting bioremediation can be divided into following categories. Microbial factors Environmental factors Microbial Factors Microorganisms can be isolated from almost any environmental conditions. Microbes will adapt and grow at subzero temperatures, as well as extreme heat, desert conditions, in water, with an excess of oxygen, and in anaerobic conditions, with the presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream. The main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. Because of the adaptability of microbes and other biological systems, these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. We can subdivide these microorganisms into the following groups Aerobic Anaerobic Ligninolytic Fungi Methylotrophs Aerobic These microbes have often been reported to degrade pesticides and hydrocarbons, both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy. Examples of aerobic bacteria recognized for their degradative abilities are Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium. Anaerobic Anaerobic bacteria are not as frequently used as aerobic bacteria. There is an increasing interest in anaerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in river sediments, dechlorination of the solvent trichloroethylene (TCE), and chloroform. Ligninolytic fungi Fungi such as the white rot fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the ability to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrates used include straw, saw dust, or corn cobs. Methylotrophs Aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. The initial enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane monooxygenase, has a broad substrate range and is active against a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane. For degradation it is necessary that bacteria and the contaminants be in contact. This is not easily achieved, as neither the microbes nor contaminants are uniformly spread in the soil. Some bacteria are mobile and exhibit a chemotactic response, sensing the contaminant and moving toward it. Other microbes such as fungi grow in a filamentous form toward the contaminant. It is possible to enhance the mobilization of the contaminant utilizing some surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) Microbes are used to degrade gasoline, the most common contaminant of groundwater in the United States. Adding powdered seaweed to DDT-contaminated soil boosts the cleaning activity of DDT-eating microbes. In one test site, 80% of the DDT was removed after six weeks. Microbes and fungi are used in air filters to control odours from sewage treatment plants and in the paint industry. A gene for a protein found in rat livers that binds with toxic metals has been inserted in both tobacco plants and algae. With this gene, the tobacco plant and the algae are able to extract several hundred times more toxic metal compounds from soil or water compared to plants without the gene. One particular microbe degrades polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are cancer-causing petroleum by-products. The microbes, called simply sulfate-reducers, are able to attack PAHs in the sediment of Boston Harbor where scientists thought the contaminant could not be treated due to lack of oxygen. Examples of microbes used for bioremediation include: Deinococcus radiodurans bacteria have been genetically modified to digest solvents and heavy metals, as well as toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste. Geobacter sufurreducens bacteria can turn uranium dissolved in groundwater into a non-soluble, collectable form. Dehalococcoides ethenogenes bacteria are being used in ten states to clean up chlorinated solvents that have been linked to cancer. The bacteria are naturally found in both soil and water and are able to digest the solvents much faster than using traditional clean-up methods. Thermus brockianus, found in Yellowstone National Park, produces an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide 80,000 times faster than current chemicals in use. Alcaligenes eutrophus, naturally degrades 2,4-D, the third most widely used herbicide in the U.S. Some contaminants potentially suitable for bioremediation. Class of contaminants Specific examples Aerobic Anaerobic Potential sources Chlorinated solvents Trichloroethylene + Drycleaners Perchloroethylene Chemical manufacture Polychlorinated biphenyls 4-Chlorobiphenyl + Electrical manufacturing 4,4 Dichlorobiphenyl Power station Railway yards Chlorinated phenol Pentachlorophenol + Timber treatment Landfills BTEX Benzene + + Oil production and storage Toluene Gas work sites Ethylbenzene Airports Xylene Paint manufacture Port facilities Railway yards Chemical manufacture Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Naphthalene + Oil production and storage (PAHs) Antracene Gas work sites Fluorene Coke plants Pyrene Engine works Benzo(a)pyrene Landfills Tar production and storage Boiler ash dump sites Power stations Pesticides Atrazine + + Agriculture Carbaryl Timber treatment Carbofuran Pesticide manufacture Coumphos Recreational areas ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 1. Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan ­isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e.g., see Table below). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells.Phosphorous and sulphur contribute with 70% of the remainders. The nutritional requirement of carbon to nitrogen ratio is 10:1, and carbon to phosphorous is 30:1. 3. Environmental requirements Optimum environmental conditions for the degradation of contaminants are reported in Table below: Parameters Condition required for microbial activity Optimum value for an oil degradation Soil moisture 25-28% of water holding capacity 30-90% Soil pH 5.5-8.8 6.5-8.0 Oxygen content Aerobic, minimum air-filled pore space of 10% 10-40% Nutrient content N and p for microbial growth C:N:P = 100:10:1 Temperature ( °C) 15-45 20-30 Contaminants Not too toxic Hydrocarbon 5-10% of dry weight of soil Heavy metals Total content 2000 ppm 700 ppm Type of soil Low clay or silt content 4. Environmental conditions affecting degradation Microbial growth and activity are readily affected by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a nar ­row range, so that it is important to achieve optimal conditions. If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects bio ­chemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them double for each 10  °C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily degraded under aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To increase the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organ ic matter can be applied. Low soil permeability can impede move ­ment of water, nutrients, and oxygen; hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATION Basically two types of techniques are involved in Bioremediation In situ Bioremediation (at the site) Ex situ Bioremediation (away from the site) In situ Bioremediation In situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal disturbance. These techniques are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and fewer disturbances since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. In many soils effective oxygen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a few centimetres to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases. In situ Bioremediation types: Bioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air flow rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatiliza ­tion and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infil ­tration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contam ­inants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there ­by increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diam ­eter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system Bioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: 1) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegrad ­able waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed. Ex situ bioremediation Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Ex situ Bioremediation types: These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a pre ­pared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limited to the treatment of superficial 10-35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much atten ­tion as a disposal alternative. Composting is a technique that involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organ ­ic amendants such as manure or agricultural wastes. The presence of these organic materials supports the development of a rich microbial population and elevated temperature characteristic of composting. Biopiles are a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are con ­structed as aerated composted piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petro ­leum hydrocarbons they are a refined version of landfarming that tend to control physical losses of the contaminants by leaching and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Bioreactors Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the pro ­cessing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered con ­tainment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to cre ­ate a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil-bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of degrading target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre-treatment (e.g., excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be stripped from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e.g., vacuum extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor. Monitoring bioremediation The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological breakdown rate as function of the redox potential. Process Reaction Redox potential (Eh in mV) Aerobic: O2 + 4eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2H2O 600 ~ 400 Anaerobic: Denitrification 2NO3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 10eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 12H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ N2 + 6H2O 500 ~ 200 Manganese IV reduction MnO2 + 2eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Mn2+ + 2H2O 400 ~ 200 Iron III reduction Fe(OH)3 + eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 3H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Fe2+ + 3H2O 300 ~ 100 Sulfate reduction SO42à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 8eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ +10 H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ H2S + 4H2O 0 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 Fermentation 2CH2O à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO2 + CH4 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢220 Types of Bioremediation Bioremediation techniques can be subdivided into various based on following factors Based on type of atmosphere in which Bioremediation takes place it can be divided into two types Engineered Bioremediation Intrinsic Bioremediation Based on Type of organism being used for Bioremediation Mycoremediation Phytoremediation ENGINEERED BIOREMEDIATION Factors effecting engineered bioremediation Contact between the microbes and the substrate Proper physical environment Nutrients Oxygen Absence of toxic compounds Sources of microorganisms From contaminated field sites(with varying environmental conditions subzero temperatures or extreme heat, desert conditions or in water, with excess of oxygen or in anaerobic conditions, with presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream) From culture collections Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) Electro kinetically enhanced bioremediation (EEB) is a method of engineered bioremediation of soil contaminated by such organic compounds as solvents and petroleum products. As depicted schematically in the figure, EEB involves the utilization of controlled flows of liquids and gases into and out of the ground via wells, in conjunction with electrokinetic transport of matter through pores in the soil, to provide reagents and nutrients that enhance the natural degradation of contaminants by indigenous and/or introduced microorganisms. The operational parameters of an EEB setup can be tailored to obtain the desired flows of reagents and nutrients in variably textured and layered soils of variable hydraulic permeability and of moisture content that can range from saturation down to as little as about 7 percent. A major attractive feature of EEB is the ability to control the movements of charged anionic and cationic as well as noncharged chemical species. The basic components of electrokinetic enhancement of bioremediation are the following: * Ions are transported by electromigration; that is, with minimum transport of liquid through the soil. The ions of interest include nutrient agents, electron donors (e.g., lactate) or electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate or sulfate) added to the soil. Electromigration is utilized as an efficient mode of electrokinetic transport in vadosezone soils. * Water in soil is pumped (horizontally or vertically, depending on the positions of electrode wells) by induced electro-osmotic flow. Whereas the hydraulic flow used in older methods decreases with decreasing pore size and is thus not effective for treating tightly packed soil, electro-osmotic flow is less restricted by tight packing. Electro-osmosis is utilized to enhance the transport of both ions and such noncharged particles as micro-organisms, by moving water from anodes (positive electrodes) toward cathodes (negative electrodes). * Electrophoresis induced in soil under an applied electric field is used to control the transport and/or distribution of micro-organisms throughout the treated soil volume. The beneficial effect of electrophoresis can be augmented or otherwise modified by use of electro-osmotic flushing of the soil. * The applied electric current can be utilized to heat the soil to the optimum temperature for bioremediation. * The gaseous and liquid products of electrolysis of water in the soil are removed from electrode wells and mixed and reinjected into the ground as needed to maintain the pH of the soil within a range favorable for bioremediation. Disadvantages Mostly GEMs do not work the way we expect: Lab strains become food source for soil protozoa Inability of GEMs to contact the compounds to be degraded Failure of GEMs to survive/compete indigenous microorganisms. Mostly due to lack / decreased activity of House Keeping Genes. INTRINSIC BIOREMEDIATION It is a natural attenuation process that leads to the decrease in contaminant levels in a particular environment due to unmanaged physical, chemical and biological processes. Conversion of environmental pollutants into the harmless forms through the innate capabilities of naturally occurring microbial population is called intrinsic bioremediation. However, there is increasing interest on intrinsic bioremediation for control of all or some of the contamination at waste sites. The intrinsic i.e. inherent capacity of microorganism, to metabolize the contaminants should be tested at laboratory and field levels before use for intrinsic bioremediation. Through site monitoring programmes progress of intrinsic bioremediation should be recorded time to time. The conditions of site that favours intrinsic bioremediation are ground water flow throughout the year, carbonate minerals to buffer acidity produced during biodegradation supply of electron acceptors and nutrients for microbial growth and absence of toxic compounds. The other environmental factors such as pH concentration, temperature and nutrient availability determine whether or not biotransformation takes place. Bioremediation of waste mixtures containing metals such as Hg, Pb, As and cyanide at toxic concentration can create problem (Madsen, l99l). The ability of surface bacteria to degrade a given mixture of pollutants in ground water is dependent on the type and concentration of compounds, electron acceptor and duration of bacteria exposed to contaminants. Therefore, ability of indigenous bacteria degrading contaminants can be determined in laboratory by plate count and macrocosm studies Example: Microbes in Hudson River mud developed an ability to partially degrade PCB (Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls) Process occurs in two steps Partial dehalogenation of PCBs occurs naturally under anaerobic conditions Less chlorinated residues Then mud is aerated to promote the complete degradation of these less chlorinated residues MYCOREMEDIATION Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation, the process of using fungi to return an environment (usually soil) contaminated by pollutants to a less contaminated state. The term Mycoremediation was coined by Paul Stam

Effective Approaches in Leadership and Management Essay

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the nurse ratios and how management and leaders effectively incorporate theories, principles and leadership styles and qualities that are effective in providing quality leadership and management to staff. There are differences in leaders and managers, in the styles, goals and qualities that define leaders and managers. The effects of the nurse patient ratio can be seen as well as felt on multiple levels of the facility. As far as nurse managers, they are on the closest level besides bedside nurses to see the effects of ratios. Studies have shown that higher nurse patient ratios lead to higher adverse outcomes for patients, lower patient satisfaction as well as higher nurse turnover , which increases costs to the facility. The article in the Journal of Clinical Nursing (2011) investigates the relationships between nurse staffing, nursing activities and adverse patient outcomes in the acute care setting as reported by nurses in Finland and the Netherlands. The study was performed using a cross-sectional, descriptive questionnaire. The study discusses tasks performed by nurses, as well as tasks performed by LPN’s and other staff. The studies show that nurses with higher patient ratio’s have higher incidence of medication administration errors, patient falls as lower patient satisfaction. The nurse manager has direct impact on the development and implementation of tools such as the staffing matrix, acuities scores and what is the policy for staffing. The nurses should be able to go to the managers with concerns regarding staffing issues. Nursing leaders look at the bigger picture, such as patient satisfaction but are also required to look at fiscal responsibilities that the facility has, as well as community events and support projects. Leaders look to improve and promote positive changes that will benefit the community served by the facility. Nurse leaders can evaluate how the policies and procedures are working, if they need to be changes to provide better quality of care. Nurse leaders also assist in educating staff on the reasons change is necessary and the steps that can be taken to effectively implement changes. Nurse managers are there to provide direction on daily tasks, support and as a resource  to staff. Typically, nurse managers deal with day to day running of the floor and issues that arise with staff and/or patients. Managers typically see issues that arise with current policies, provide direction to staff. It is understandable how management can be pulled in opposite directions such as what is best for nursing staff and patients may not be the same as what is good for the facility. Upper management does not always seem to have a grasp on the reality of the floor, the day to day issues of providing patient care and just what is necessary to maintain patient satisfaction. The theories and principles that best describe this writers philosophy is a mix. One theory or principle does not fit. A mix of situational, servant and participative includes the theories followed. Different situations can bring out different needs. An example in my facility is, with concerns regarding financial changes occurring in healthcare, rising costs to healthcare, a poor economy and decreased reimbursments, the leaders have to look at all those aspects, and evaluate the risk vs. benefits to nurse ratios. The nurse managers have to follow the rules set forth, and try to comply with the demands from upper management. It is expected by me that nurse managers look at the reality of the floor while keeping the needs of the facility in mind. Floor nurses are the advocates for the patient, and have a unique perspective of the needs of the floor. Managing staffing, acuities and patient care while also dealing with physicians, and upper  management requires effort and active participation. Leaders need to think outside the box, look at the bigger picture and then convince everyone that the changes are necessary, needed and beneficial. Both positions require skills such as good communication, good listening, being able to lead without dictatorship or by fear. Creating a positive environment while maintaining authority is not an easy task. Creating an atmosphere conducive to change while providing high quality care and keeping everyone happy is an even more difficult task. But both of these tasks require a relationship, trust and communication between all parties or departments involved. Staffing ratios have been studied, as seen in the study regarding work satisfaction (Nursing Economics, 2012) discusses the first staffing law that went into effect in California in 2004. The study showed that nurses with a lower nurse to patient ratio had a higher job satisfaction rate, as well as better patient satisfaction. The costs associated with high nurse turnover include more than just monetary costs. The safety risks to patients can not be ignored. Nurse managers can evaluate the effectiveness of the policies as they are closest to the floor nurses and patients. Nurse managers have a different and unique experience, as do nurse leaders. Both areas require active participation with daily interaction with staff. The staff needs to feel a part of the team, respected and listened to. To have an effective unit, collaboration between all levels needs to be in place. Effective managers and effective leaders can work together to achieve goals, while providing high quality patient care. References Hinno, S., Partanen, P., & Vehvilà ¤inen-Julkunen, K. (2012). Nursing activities, nurse staffing and adverse patient outcomes as perceived by hospital nurses. Journal Of Clinical Nursing, 21(11/12), 1584-1593. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03956.x Tellez, M. (2012). Work Satisfaction Among California Registered Nurses: A Longitudinal Comparative Analysis. Nursing Economic$, 30(2), 73-81.

Industrial Revolution - 1573 Words

Was the Industrial Revolution a Blessing or a Curse? The Industrial Revolution was a period of technological improvement that took place in Britain from about 1750 into the 1900’s. To many, the Industrial Revolution was the gateway into modern-day factories and machinery. The Industrial Revolution was spurred by the competition of Britain against India or China. India and China were both very productive in the production of goods, meaning the people of Britain had to buy the cheap products imported from India and China. British businessmen developed new technology so they could manufacture their own cotton textiles, the main product imported into Britain. Although some historians believe that the Industrial revolution was a blessing†¦show more content†¦Overseers took most of the money earned and kept it for themselves. Any worker who dared go on strike or stand up for thei pay was beaten and tortured. This piece of evidence shows that since the majority of people were part of the working class, they were abused and we re arguably better off working hard and receiving most of the fruits of their labor on farms instead of doubling their repetitive work for half of the payoff. Adolf Levenstein, a coal miner living during the Industrial Revolution Reflected in a letter, later collected into the book, From the Depths: Workers Letters, published in 1905, states how, â€Å"The work is becoming increasingly mechanical. No more incentive, no more haste, we muddle along wearily, we are worn out and mindless. My forehead burns like fire†¦. But in my head it rages and paralyzes me beyond control or without my being able to think. When it becomes unbearable I stop my slow, energyless working†¦.And that is not all; the spirit too, the conscience of the individual, degenerates. And one drudge, grown vacuous through his work, is put beside another one, and another one and finally this â€Å"modern† circle has closed in on the entire working force† (Levenstein). The work in the mines w as tiring and repetitive. Since machines have taken more of the desirable jobs and workers have been laid off, the laborers who are still employed had to work tedious jobs. This letter provides a view into the dailyShow MoreRelatedIndustrial Of The Industrial Revolution1666 Words   |  7 PagesMartinez English IV, 1st hour 4/29/16 The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution set people away from farms and small villages and moved them to cities and towns because of the job opportunities that arose in the cities. The Industrial Revolution not only helped people move along in the late 1700s and early 1800s but also it has made the people what they are today. During the Industrial Revolution, the movement from an agrarian society to an industrial one reshaped the roles of families, widenRead MoreThe Revolution Of The Industrial Revolution917 Words   |  4 PagesWhen thinking of the industrial revolution, I usually correlate this transitional period to great advancements in machinery, and an increase in jobs. However, after looking past the surface of the industrial revolution, in regards to the promise of great wealth, this promise was not kept, along with other issues. I believe that a â€Å"better life† would mean that people would not have to go through the same struggles they once did before the revolution, struggles such as not having a job, money, homeRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution943 Words   |  4 PagesThe Industrial Revolution, a Revolution that began in Britain in the nineteenth century, saw people move from working in the farming industry to working in factories. This transition from an agrarian society meant that many people moved to cities in search of jobs. New methods of manufacturing allowed goods to be produced far more cheaply and quickly than before. However, the Revolution came with its own negative consequences. The lives of children during the Industrial Revolution were torturousRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution1633 Words   |  7 Pagesmeans of communication, factories to manufacture the products you need, places to work, and ways to travel and transport goods. And what made these possible? The answer is the Industrial Revolution, which started in Europe around the year 1730. A revolution is a major change or turning point in something. The Industrial Revolution was a major turning point in history and in the way people lived. Their careers, living situations, location, values, and daily routines all changed, and they needed it desperatelyRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution1097 Words   |  5 PagesBefore the advent of the Industrial Revolution, most people resided in small, rural communities where their daily existences revolved around farming. Life for the average person was difficult, as incomes were meager, and malnourishment and disease were common. People produced the bulk of their own food, clothing, furniture and tools. Most manufacturing was done in homes or small, rural shops, using hand tools or simple machines. Did You Know? The word luddite refers to a person who is opposedRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution1090 Words   |  5 PagesShort Term Misery†¦ Long Term Gain There are two major industrializations that have occurred through out history, both which began in England. The Industrial Revolution was from 1750 until 1800. The first and second industrialization were filled with many inventions, new societal ideas, new raw materials, new sources of power, also new ideas and societal implements were made enabling the world and society to evolve. Overall these industrialization was filled with death, neglect, and disease but endedRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution936 Words   |  4 Pageseconomist Robert Emerson Lucas wrote in regards to the Industrial revolution: For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. The novelty of the discovery that a human society has this potential for generating sustained improvement in the material aspects of the lives of all its members, not just the ruling elite, cannot be overstressed.† (Lucas 2002). The revolution itself was ce ntred in Britain before spreading to theRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution705 Words   |  3 PagesThe Industrial Revolution was the quintessence of capitalistic ideals; it bred controversy that led to Karl Marx’s idea of communism as a massive grass roots reaction to the revolution’s social abuses. Firstly, the Industrial Revolution featured the construction of machines, systems and factories that allowed goods to be manufactured at a faster rate with a lower cost. The seed drill made it so there could be â€Å"a semi-automated, controlled distribution and plantation of wheat seed†(Jones 2013). SecondlyRead MoreIndustrial Revolution1160 Words   |  5 Pagesend of the 19th century, a significant change took place in the fundamental structure of the economy. That change was industrialization. During this time period, the United States of America changed from a large, agricultural country, to an urban industrial society. The process of industrialization began to take place in America, and eventually took over the economy during this period. Entrepreneurs and inventors put together various machines and businesses to help better the country function on aRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution Essay2099 Words   |  9 PagesThe Industrial Revolution was one of the largest social and cultural movements that changed the methods of manufacturing of metal and textiles, the transportation system, economic policies and social structure as well. Before the Industrial Revolution, people used to live by season due to agriculture. They thrived on whatever food was in season. Now, as a result of the Industrial Revolution, we live regimented and almost everything that is made, is mass produced. I will discuss three major topics

Social Policies And New Government Funding Necessary

This paper will focus on social policies and new government funding necessary that could benefit with the prevalence of suicidal ideations and behaviors in adolescents. There are many factors that come into play when it comes to suicidal behavior in adolescents. The main one that I will discuss in this paper is the environmental factors such as bullying or cyberbullying. Moreover, mental health disorder such as depressions and anxiety. bullying can be divided into two categories: traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Traditional bullying refers to verbal, social and physical. Cyberbullying occurs when an individual uses electronic to harass, embarrass and threaten someone else. According to studies, both the†¦show more content†¦school use these policies as a way to punish students usually expulsion and suspensions when students don’t follow the rules. Yes, the policy works for some students, but it’s not an effective method for those who don’t care about school. When a student is expelled or suspended from school, they get to stay home and do nothing. They going to do the same thing again to get another day or week off school. While the policy has pros and cons, I think the school system should reevaluate this policy. Based on many psychological research, suspension and expulsion have are more likely to increase negative behaviors in students and lead students to drop out of school after being suspended so many time (Christopher Boccanfuso, Ph.D., and Megan Kuhfeld, B.S., 2011). According to a map found on the Stopbullying.gov, Pennsylvania is one of the 11 states that adopted the State anti-bullying law. Under this law, the school district should provide training for all staff members on how to â€Å"prevent, identify and respond to bullying†. In addition to that the, on June 26, 2014 , â€Å"Act 71 was signed into law in Pennsylvania† this Act requires every school district in Pennsylvania to â€Å"adopt a youth suicide awareness and prevention policies’ and provide every educators with a 4 hours training on suicide preventionShow MoreRelatedAcross The Nation Employment Rates Are Holding Steady For1696 Words   |  7 Pageseducation across the nation. A public policy is necessary because most individuals with disabilities get their money from Social Security, which is how they can survive in the world. It pays for health care, Medicaid, housing, long term support and care, but those costs are being depleted and running low because funding for Social Security programs for those with disabilities is decreasing, as is the funds for Social Security for everyone. The government is no longer funding as much money as they once wereRead MoreThe Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Essay1666 Words   |  7 PagesThe Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which originally began as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA), was created to ensure a free and appropriate public education to children with disabilities. This policy was implemented in an effort to provide equal access to education for all. Prior to 1975, the needs of children with disabilities were highly overlooked. According to the Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (2010)Read MoreEffects of Long-Term Deficit Spending1687 Words   |  7 PagesKeynes noted that the federal government not only has a responsibility to help revive the economy, but is often the only solution when a recession grows deep enough. He argued that the basic problem of a severe recession is a lack of investment on the part of business despite low interest rates. The answer when neither business nor consumers are able to awaken the economy is that the government needs to step in and encourage investment through borrowing and spending. Government spending can reactivateRead MoreThe Key Issues Of New Zealand s Education Sector Essay1497 Words   |  6 Pagesdefine the key issues in New Zealand’s education sector. The reforms in the education sector have increased independence throughout the residential area in terms of local opinions. Yet, teachers and parents wanted the government to focus more on facilitating, staff workload and school funding issues instead of more changes to regulations. Majority of the schools faculty believed that New Zealand’s education department were omitted from structuring the governments education policy. 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The latter half of Bridget Moran’s autobiographical novel, A Little Rebellion, provides examples of how the social work industry has grown through the decades without effecting much change around fundamental issues such as poverty. Moran (1992) examines how privatization and the contracting out of social programming created a â€Å"shadow ministry† or â€Å"para-ministry† that broadened the scope of services provided (pp. 141-142) while the number of people requiringRead MoreFiscal Policy Paper Eco3721409 Words   |  6 Pageshave an impact on taxpayers. In the state of high deficit the government seeks ways to cut and save money for debt payment. The government does this by pulling funding from programs that have little government impact. Increasing taxes also supplies the government with extra income. In addition to the reduction or elimination of certain tax credits, the government analyzes school funding for cost effectiveness. Each step the government takes has a trickling effect on taxpayer’s dollar. The Effects

Music Is The Greatest Singer Of The 20th Century - 1068 Words

The culture of music is one of the most ever evolving outlets society has, people from all around the world can find common ground between simple beats and rythyms. Music genres are built off of one another to develop new and unique genres, ranging from classical blues to heavy metal bands. In between the years 1960 and 2010 America has had over 13 diverse genres rule over musics Hot 100. Numerous talented artists have advanced music to what the world knows it as today. Frank Sinatra is one of the most well known and influential singers throughout the history of music, indisputably being the greatest singer of the 20th Century. Sinatra engineered the idea of colloquially conventional, his music was a mix of romantics and compelling truth. In 1939 Frank Sinatra released, â€Å"From the Bottom of My Heart† a classic orchestra based song showing the formal romance in his songs. In between the years 1943 and 1946 Sinatra had 17 Top 10 chart singles. After his limelight his career earnings dwindled down to $30,000 a record, as music taste shifted away from Sinatra s style. He returned to fame as an actor throughout the 50 s to regain his fame, and had another opportunity at the music industry in the 60 s. Little did he know in 1966 through 1967 he would released three of his Top 10 singles. (Simon, and Shuster. Frank Sinatra Biography. Rolling Stone.) Another band that allowed a positive change in music was The Beatles, who gained their fame through their success as composers.Show MoreRelatedJazz From The United States999 Words   |  4 Pagesin the early part of the 20th century. From Ragtime and blues to Big Bean and Bebop, jazz has been a part of a proud African American tradition for over 100 years. The history of jazz has its roots firmly planted in the American cities of New Orleans, Chicago, and New York City. New Orleans jazz was first recorded in Chicago and New York, not in New Orleans. The first recording was the Original Dixieland Jazz Band. Jazz is often referred to as â€Å"American’s classical music.’’ Jazz is known as one’sRead More 20th Century Essay827 Words   |  4 Pages Music written since 1900 is called twentieth century music. There have been more types and styles of music written in the twentieth century then ev er before. In the twentieth century, the only limit is the composers imagination. This great variety of musical styles reflected the diversity of life during the early twentieth century. More people were free to choose where to live, how to earn a living, and how to spend their time. The car, airplane, telephone, phonograph, movies, and radio all madeRead MoreEssay on Frank Sinatra995 Words   |  4 Pagespre-dominant individuals of the 20th century. Time magazine voted Frank Sinatra as the world’s most influential vocalist of the 20th century. Frank Sinatra not only excelled but transcended music and became a true personality of our time. Whether you’re talking about recorded music, live performances, movies or simply living large, Frank Sinatra has done that all. He has become an international figure, having the reputation as a celebrity, icon, bad boy and the greatest singer of American popular songsRead MoreLouis Armstrong : The Greatest Jazz Artist1087 Words   |  5 PagesLouis â€Å"Satchmo† Armstrong One of the greatest in Jazz music history Louis Armstrong, a man of many talents and skills his occupation ranging from singer, film star, soloist, comedian, bandleader, and most importantly a jazz trumpeter with his thrilling performances; being recognized as one of the greatest jazz artist in history. Louis Armstrong is considered one of the most influential jazz artists capturing the people’s attention with his â€Å"daring trumpet style and vocals†. Developing his skillsRead MoreAnalysis Of Scott Joplin s Maple Leaf Rag 858 Words   |  4 Pagesmost well-known ragtime pieces of the time. Joplin moved to Missouri to teach piano. Julius Weiss tutored Scott Joplin when he was a young boy. Joplin began to be introduced to classical and folk music from her. He taught several people like Arthur Marshall and Brun Campell to compose ragtime music there. He eventually died later in his life in the city of New York in 1917 at the age of 49. In Scott Joplin’s ragtime pieced â€Å"Maple Leaf Rag†, it is compiled with several melodic motives thatRead MoreThe History Of Western Music1381 Words   |  6 PagesThe History of Western Music Throughout history all cultures have been influenced by music. Before the Baroque era in music there were many forms of western music. Most of this music was monophonic, sung in chant used mostly for religious purposes. During the previous millennia most music was sung in chant form with very little accompaniment, save a harp or a violin. In these times music was a simple art, sung by the people to praise the Lord. 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If you say â€Å"The King of Rock† everyone will automatically know you are talking about Elvis Presley. Through his music, Elvis paved the road for African Americans to the music world, and he had essentially revolutionized American society and cultureRead MoreEssay Nirvana a Rock Band Formed by Kurt Cobain 922 Words   |  4 Pagesfirst rock band I started listening to at the age of twelve and this established my taste of music until nowadays. However, they had a big influence on their contemporary pop-rock musical industry in the early nineties, as well. Despite the fact that they released only three studio albums in seven years, Nirvana is often regarded as one of the most influential, effective and remarkable rock bands of the century. This trio from Seattle appeared in the public consciousness in 1991 with their single â€Å"SmellsRead MoreFranco and TPOK Jazz Essay1241 Words   |  5 PagesCongolese guitarist, singer, bandleader and composer Francois Luambo Makiadi (Franco) â€Å"the sorcerer of the guitar† was 20th century Africa’s most important musician; he was the greatest. My opinion is amply supported by the recent release of two double CD retrospectives Francophonic Volume 1(1953-1979) 2 (1980-1989). The sets demonstrate Franco’s amazing longevity, prolificacy, and innovation. From 1950 until his death in 1989, he record over a thousand songs, created a dominate style of African

Global Regulatory Regime for Environment Free Essays

Introduction: The environment surrounding us is precious and of high importance for every individual, yet people and processes are causes of the highest amount of harm to the environment. As the areas surrounding us get filled up with waste, chemicals, noise, pollution, and other harmful gases, it becomes increasingly difficult to live in such areas. Moreover, these areas lose their natural beauty. We will write a custom essay sample on Global Regulatory Regime for Environment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Harmful chemicals, pollution, and the inappropriate disposal of waste material also causes severe harm to the forestry and the trees surrounding an area and leads to the reduction of clean air or oxygen prevalent in the area. Thus, people and other living things must succumb to breathing in carbon dioxide and other harmful gases. Such polluted environments are not only harmful to the betterment of the planet but are also highly toxic for human beings, animals, plants, and all living organisms. Thus, substantially reducing the quality of life for living things and their prospects for leading a healthy life (Gerlagh Mathys, 2011). While much of the pollution and harm to the environment is caused by individuals during the course of living in their own homes through the use of toxic chemicals such as body sprays, hair sprays, cooking oils, the use of their cars, inappropriate disposal of waste and lack of recycling; a large amount of harm to the environment is caused by businesses and industries. Businesses adopt processes of production and research and development which may lead to the accumulation of high amounts of waste material, release of toxic chemicals, inappropriate disposal of recyclable material, and large emissions of smoke and pollution from factory areas amongst many other forms of harming the environment. (Fredrikson,1995). Businesses, in the process of mass production, are likely to harm the environment in substantial ways besides the smoke and pollution emissions from factory areas. Other common ways of bringing harm to the environment include using non-renewable resources in production without proper planning and control. Cutting down trees to build industrial and shopping areas is also another form of harm to the environment. Businesses and industries may also use parts of endangered species in order to facilitate their production process or as an input into their products. Animal testing is also a common method used by businesses which often gives rise to substantial levels of criticism. However, many or most of these effects are necessary or inevitable when businesses indulge in production and research processes. (Antweiker et al, 2001). Yet, many can be controlled to a large extent. However, businesses are unwilling to put in that extra amount of effort and money to ensure that their processes an d the materials they use are environmentally-friendly (Grieg et al, 2005). Corporate Social Responsibility: Corporate social responsibility is another highly popular business practice that many businesses now aim to implement either to fulfill their own personal vision regarding the type of impact they should have on the environment or because they want to ensure that their reputation remains clean and high in the eyes of their consumers. Often, applying socially responsible techniques leads to higher levels of investment or cost as close consideration must be made when choosing appropriate materials, applying appropriate processes, and implementing other supervisory and control procedures. However, many consumers and the media, especially in developed countries, demand that organizations act in an ethically acceptable and socially responsible manner. This includes caring for the environment and ensuring that their business processes do not cause excessive harm to the environment. This is often done by controlling the amount of emissions coming from a factory, controlling the types of inpu ts that are put into products, using recyclable material and encouraging recycling, helping the preservation of endangered species and refraining from using animal testing, and implementing an appropriate waste disposal procedure amongst innumerous other actions (Landes, 1998). However, while corporate social responsibility practices may be a norm in developed countries, they may be considered a luxury in the Third World. With many other problems plaguing the people of such countries, there is no control over the manner in which the environment is harmed in Third World countries. Waste is often disposed of outside factory gates or in empty land sites in residential areas without considering the filth and diseases that such waste material contains for the people living in nearby areas. Water and air is highly polluted in industrial and factory areas as business owners are mainly concerned with their own profit and are not concerned about the well-being of people surrounding that area. There are no regulations or control on such practices which force individuals living in such countries to live sub-standard or low quality lives. The amount of noise pollution caused by businesses is highly negligible as that is only the beginning of the environmental problems prevalent in these countries (Toffel et al, 1998). Oil spills and highly dangerous chemicals are often found in areas around factories and in other landfills which are often a cause for death to people or children who are found in those areas. Recycling is not highly practiced in organizations in Third World countries and there is no regard for the proper use of non-renewable resources (Bierman, 2003). Global Regulatory Policies: There is a very strong need for proper regulation in order to control the manner in which businesses and industries affect the environment around them and the manner in which they dispose of their waste materials. This is a prevailing problem in many parts of the world and is also an existing problem in developed countries. There are still many businesses who have not succumbed to following appropriate environmentally friendly practices. Depletion of the ozone layer, losing the fertility of soil, and permanently polluting the environment with antioxidants are just some of the highly harmful effects that can exist because of the malpractices that businesses engage in. In order to prevent the occurrence of such effects, there needs to be a proper regulation system in place. As the problem of harm to the environment is a global issue as it is highly important for the whole planet to remain free from harm, there may be a need for a global regulatory regime or policy to govern the environ mental practices of businesses (Cassesse, 2010). Global regulatory policies are often used to govern other aspects of human existence such as the relationship between countries, human rights, trade, and other such areas which involve practices worldwide. Global regulatory regimes are often made with a consensus of all the countries involved and require the assent of their leaders to implement such policies within their own country. Different countries are likely to have different policies regarding environmental control, and have their own set of laws which govern their particular borders regarding how to prevent environmental damage. However, there have been occurrences of international treaties in which numerous countries participated in order to mutually attempt to bring benefit to the environment (Abbott, 2012). Previous Environmental Laws: Law governing the environmental aspect of society is known as environmental law. Many such laws have been passed in the United States in the past such as the National Environmental Policy (1969), the Clean Air Act (1970), the Clean Water Act (1972), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 aimed to ensure that all activities whether federal or private must be assessed and evaluated on the pretense of their effect upon the environment and their subsequent influence upon the surroundings around them. This meant that any project in the United States excluding those performed by the President or Congress were to be assessed to ensure that they did not cause immense harm to the environment. This act was implemented when concerns for the environment began to increase and people became more conscious of the effects that their actions caused upon the environment. The Clean Air act of 1970 aimed to ensure that the air remained clean and emissions an d the release of gases was controlled in order to prevent toxic emissions or the release of a high amount of antioxidants Industries and factories were given permits in order to control the amount of emissions they could release and they were heavily penalized if they exceeded the specified amount of emissions allowed to them. There were also days on which emissions were not allowed from factories and businesses were made to seize production in order to let the air remain clean for specific periods of time (Avant et al, 2010). While the above mentioned laws were specific to the United States, there have been laws which governed the whole world at large. Some of these laws are known as customary laws and have become such common practice that it is considered necessary for all countries to be bound by them. These laws are often upheld by authorities such as the United Nations. Such laws are usually laid out after world conferences in the United Nations and examples include the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, World Commission on Environment and Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. and the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Protocols are also made between countries which are subsidiary agreements made from the main treaty. These smaller agreements govern certain aspects of the main agreement and put forward additional requirements that must be followed in addition to the main agreement. Some of the most popular protocols include the Kyota Protocol and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Bierman Bernd, 2009). Accordingly, many international organizations are also made which seek to implement such environmental goals of which some of the most popular ones include International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Hence, there are many platforms for making international laws and global regulatory regimes in order to promote the environmental cause. Moreover, such actions have been taken before and there are many laws in place governing such issues. (Keohane, 2010). Benefits and Prospects of Adopting a Global Regulatory Regime: Hence, the prospects of adopting a global regulatory regime are quite high as many countries are now mutually concerned regarding the environment and the effects that businesses and industries have upon their countries. Moreover, due to high awareness levels and a lot of media coverage, individuals, businesses, and specifically multinational organizations seek to focus upon the implementation of safe and fair practices for the environment and seek help and support in this regard. There are organizations and international committees which work for this cause and serve as a platform to bring many countries of the world together to discuss important issues Accordingly, as it is often said that brainstorming and consultation can lead to better solutions, the adoption of a global regulatory regime allows the leaders and prominent personalities of the world to mutually decide what is beneficial for their country and the world at large (Keohane, 1984). As the whole planet technically belongs to all individuals and the actions of one country are likely to affect the whole planet, it is also important for there to be a mutual consensus regarding the practices prevalent in different countries across the globe. For example, the USA’s excessive use of aerosol sprays has depleted the ozone layer and this has eventually affected global warming in the whole world. In the same manner, the excess of pollution in the air and other toxic chemicals affect processes such as rain, global warming, and the prevalence of clean water for multiple countries who share borders and water facilities through the use of rivers. Hence, while one country may adopt principles to govern the environmental aspect in their own country, they may not be completely aware of the effect that practices in their own country are having upon other countries and vice versa. Thus, it may be more beneficial to discuss these problems together and on a global platform in order to come up with mutually feasible solutions (Scott, 1998). Accordingly, the feasibility and previous implementation of a global regulatory regime for the environment may be high, yet it is a highly difficult procedure and program to successfully implement and ensure that it is abided by. Thus, there may be several problems associated with the adoption of a global regulatory regime and the attempt to implement it in all countries of the world (Wilson, 1991). Problems with the Adoption of a Global Regulatory Regime: One of the most troubling problems of adopting a global regulatory regime or attempting to implement it is the setting up of an authority to ensure implementation and supervise the regime. It is literally impossible for a regulatory committee to be physically present in all parts of all countries governed by the regime, thus it becomes nearly impossible for such committees to supervise and check whether the laws governing this regime are followed in all parts of all countries. Accordingly, it is not possible or easy to maintain a proper check and balance on the laws governing this global regime and it is not possible to detect offenders easily. If there is no proper way to uphold the regulations in the regime, the regime is likely to be highly ineffective (Wilson, 1991). Moreover, there needs to be a proper way to punish countries which do not follow the regime properly and do not uphold the laws described in it. It may be highly difficult to decide upon a punishment for such countries and even more difficult to implement such a punishment. It may also be easy for countries with higher levels of influence to avoid punishment. Another very tantalizing aspect is to decide upon the judiciary who will preside over such cases and maintain a fair and balanced system. This is highly difficult to implement on a global scale (Sim Teoh, 1997). The costs associated with implementing the system and maintaining a committee for check and balance purposes will be quite high and may be considered unnecessary by many countries. This may also be considered a waste of time and effort by many world leaders and it is highly difficult to arrive at a mutually agreed upon decision. Moreover, the drafting of policies governing the global regulatory regime is likely to be a highly rigorous process which is likely to take a lot of contemplation, argument, and debate. There are not likely to be many occasions on which all countries agree or cooperate and such procedures cannot be forced upon countries which do not agree. Treaties are made by mutual consent and obtaining mutual consent is likely to be the major problem prevailing in the implementation of such policies (Feigener, 1997). Many countries argue and debate for long periods of time concerning the applicability of customary laws towards themselves. Many countries want to be free from having to abide by such laws and put up issues in United Nations meetings. Hence, if the application of customary laws becomes a matter of debate, the adoption of a global regulatory regime is likely to become a matter of intense or perhaps never-ending debate (Sadiq Governortori, 2010). There are costs associated with the implementation of environmental controls and these costs are likely to be high. Hence, all countries may not be willing to implement these costs within their respective country as it may be burdening upon their budget and they may have other concerns for which to allocate their national budget to. Due to the associated costs, many countries refrain from indulging in environmentally friendly practices and this includes countries such as the United States of America. Moreover, many world leaders may consider these extra costs to be unnecessary and burdensome for the economy. It will obviously take extra expenditure on the part of each country separately in order to ensure that regulatory practices are implemented within their own country. Hence, many leaders consider this to be unnecessary expenditure and do not express their consent to indulge in such excessive expenditure. One of the most important reasons for the difficulty in adopting a global environmental regulatory regime is that the circumstances of all countries are different. While the citizens of some countries are educated and aware of the need for an environmental cause, the citizens of other countries are not aware of such problems and have other bigger problem plaguing their nation. Moreover, while some developed countries have the resources and equipment needed to implement environmental controls, other poorer nations of the world completely lack such facilities and cannot support such regimes. Environmental problems affecting different countries are also of diverse natures but it is widely known that developing countries require even more regulatory controls than developed nations as the atmosphere in their countries is highly dangerous for the citizens of the country and leads to many deaths annually. Moreover, awareness programs and other initiatives are required in such countries in order to at least make the situation satisfactory if not excellent. However, these goals and others concerning the environment seem to be a long way away from being fully achieved (Baumgartner Winter, 2013). Conclusion and Recommendations: While it is not easy to adopt a global regulatory regime, countries can hold annual conferences in order to discuss environmental issues and attempt to mutually solve the environmental concerns arising (Nielson Jensen, 2013). Countries who do agree upon implementation of environmental controls can sign treaties and agreements in order to make the implementation of such procedures official. They can also attempt to have talks with the leaders of other countries and provide support for the successful implementation of environmental controls and regulatory regimes in these countries. Support can be through manpower, delegations, or financial aid in order to help other countries conform to the laws governing environmental concerns. However, countries who do not agree upon the implementation of such controls cannot be forced to consider them (Henri Jornalt, 2010). Serious offenders or countries which are severely damaging the environment can be reprimanded through boycotts from other countries, cutting off of trade, foreign aid, or through other means. However, it is necessary to consider the country’s circumstances before such severe consequences are applied and talks should be carried out in order to solve such issues (Fuerist Mcallister, 2011). Hence, a global regulatory regime can be applied towards some countries of the world but is extremely difficult to apply on all countries of the world and can be considered impossible to some extent.[1] However, there are manners in which countries can take initiatives as a combined body to help the environmental cause and promote the campaign against environmental harm caused by industries and businesses worldwide (Tessitore et al, 2010). References Abbott, K. (2012) The Transnational Regime Complex for Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Anderson, R. (2010) â€Å"Who Controls the Off-Switch?’ Smart Grid Communications International Conference. 96-101 Antweiler, W., B. Copeland, M.S. Taylor. (2001) â€Å"Is free trade good for the environment?† American Economic Review. 91. pp.877–907 Avant, Deborah D., Martha Finnemore, Susan K. Sell, eds. (2010) Who Governs the Globe?. Cambridge University Press. Baumgartner, R. Winter, T. (2013) â€Å"The Sustainability Manager: A Tool for Education and Training on Sustainability Management.† Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management. Biermann, F. Bernd S. eds.( 2009) â€Å"Managers of Global Change: The Government and Policy.† Environment and Planning Control. 30(4) pp.571-90 Biermann, F. (2010) â€Å"Beyond the Intergovernmental regime: recent trends in global carbon governance†. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 2 (4) pp. 284-288 Cassesse, S. (2010) â€Å"Is There a Global Administrative Law?†.The Exercise of Public Authority by International Institutions. 210. pp. 761-776 Fiegener, M. (1994) â€Å"Matching Business-level Strategic Controls to Strategy: Impact on Control System Effectiveness. 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(1984) After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Princeton: Princeton University Press. Keohane,N. O. (2010) Thinking about Leadership. Princeton: Princeton University Landes, D. S. (1998) The wealth and poverty of nations: why some are so rich and some so poor. W. Norton, New York, New York, USA. Nielsen, J. Jensen, T. (2013) â€Å"Environmental Epidemiology†. Essentials of Medical Geology. 537=547 Sadiq, S. Governatori, G. (2010) â€Å"Managing Regulatory Compliance in Business Processes†. Handbook on Business Process Management. 159-175 Scott, R. (1998.) Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems. Prentice Hall. Sim, A.B. Teoh, H.Y. (1997) â€Å"Relationships Between Business Strategy, Environment and Controls; A Three Country Study.† Journal of Applied Business Research. Vol. 13 (4) Tessitore, S., Daddi, T., Iraldo, F. (2010) â€Å"The link between environmental and economic performance: evidence from some eco-innovative industrial clusters†. International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development. 12 pp. 124-144 Toffel, M., Short, J. Ouellet, M. (2012) â€Å"Reinforcing Regulatory Regimes: How States, Civil Society, and Codes of Conduct Promote Adherence to Global Labor Standards.† Harvard Business School Technology and Operations Management Unit Working Paper 13. Voigt, S. (2012) The Economics of Informal International Law: An Empirical Assessment. In Informal International Lawmaking. edited by Joost Pauwelyn, Ramses A. Wessel, and Jan Wouters. New York: Oxford University Press Wilson, J. (1991) Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do And Why They Do It. Basic Books How to cite Global Regulatory Regime for Environment, Essay examples

Americas Teens Up In Smoke Essay Example For Students

Americas Teens Up In Smoke Essay Americas Teens Up in SmokeOn every street corner in America, you will find a teen smoking. Even though a number of commercials and school orientations have given the effects of smoking, the kids feel they are invincible to the effects smoking can cause. Tobacco companies have targeted the youth, ages eleven to seventeen, because they are the future of their industry and very influential (Britannica online). Yes it is true; the future of America has been the focus of their progression. However, how can we have a healthy outlook on the future if 34.8 percent of our youth are inhaling five hundred chemicals into their bodies (Britannica online)? Society needs to focus on telling teenagers the numerous effects of smoking, so they can live a healthier life. The effects of smoking have long been proven to destroy out bodies. The number one disease caused by smoking is cancer. Ola James husband died of lung cancer this past summer. She says Every time I see someone light a cigarette, I think of how sick Richard was and it breaks my heart. She has watched the one person who meant more to her than anyone else in the world, die from a disease that TV has advertised for years. Although a smoker for many years, Richard James might be alive today if he had quit smoking when he was young. Smoking can also cause emphysema, which is a condition of the lungs marked by distension and frequently by impairment of heart action. Smoking has also been known to cause yellow stains on teeth, inflamed gums, periodontal disease, and other diseases of the mouth (Britannica online). With that in mind, who wants to have a cigarette hanging out of their mouth? Well the answer to that question can be answered in two words . . . todays youth. While no one really u nderstands why teenagers take their first puff, whether its peer pressure or another reason, the fact is that they do. Obviously they dont have a high regard for their health. After repeatedly being told that smoking is bad, teenagers just do not seem to care. Another problem with smoking is the effects it has on others around you. Studies have shown that second hand smoke is more dangerous than first hand smoke (askjeeves.com). It causes those around them to be more susecptable to getting respritory problems and cancer. Now the 34.8 percent of the youth are not only bringing themselves down, but they are bringing down the rest of the population with them. If teenagers continue to smoke while they are pregnant, it will result in low birth weights and/or severe birth defects. This is not making Americas future look to bright. Although teenagers have been warned of the effects of smoking, they will continue to light up whenever and wherever they please. We as citizens must fight to make teenage smoking harder to start. We must make new laws, ensure that America follows these laws, and punish those who break them. I dont know who had it worse, teenagers fifty years ago who didnt know the effects of smoking, or teenagers today who do know the effects and just dont care. Smoking is doing nothing but harming the youth through diseases, and hurting those around them. If they knew more about the effects, then maybe they would not be so quick to start. Social Issues Essays