Over Representation of African American Students in the Special Education System. Essay Example for Free

Over Representation of African American Students in the Special Education System. Exposition Presentation My present school has specialized curriculum list of 32 understudies in self contain with over 90% of the understudies being African-American. This paper will address the enormous number African-American understudies in the custom curriculum framework. Consideration will be center around the social monetary jobs that have an influence in arrangement. At the point when done appropriately and in fitting viewpoint, specialized curriculum is valuable for understudies with a genuine inability, however custom curriculum administrations are improper when an understudy gets it when it isn't required. African-American understudies are being set in the specialized curriculum framework at a disturbing rate. They are being marked with inabilities at ages as ahead of schedule as five years of age, since they progress more slow than the remainder of the class, inclination in evaluation instrument, segregation in the public eye reflected in the school or they may introduce some conduct issue. Specialized curriculum is fitting position for understudies with genuine inabilities, yet minority blacks are by and large excessively place in a specialized curriculum. This out of line position at early ages are making these youngsters be generalized as moderate students causing low confidence and low accomplishment rate during and after school. This is a significant issue while tending to a custom curriculum for African Americans. Numerous endeavors have been made to tackle the issues yet there have been no agreeable outcomes. Hypothetical Framework The lopsided portrayal of African-Americans understudies in the specialized curriculum framework is very much recorded. This distortion has been tricky since the origin of the specialized curriculum program. This paper will test the reasons a large number of these understudies have been classified with different kind of learning incapacities or passionate unsettling influences. These names given to understudies have demonstrated to be life changing to understudies given inaccurate situation. Claims have been recorded charging that arrangements of high quantities of African American, particularly male, in a custom curriculum classes has been a device for opposing court requested integration (Harry and Anderson, 1992). In numerous examples there is an absence of or reluctance to appropriately put African American understudies in light of teachers in certain frameworks being socially different. Furthermore there is a great deal of question among teachers and guardians. Numerous guardians don’t look for suitable administrations or can't help contradicting instructive position since they believe they will be see as oblivious or â€Å"talked down† to by instructors and managers setting their youngsters in a custom curriculum. This paper will likewise examine the drawn out impacts that ruin understudies instructive advancement just as there grown-up life. When put in numerous specialized curriculum programs understudy may not be in line to get a secondary school confirmation. Numerous understudies experience issues in the network landing positions since bosses feel they will be more slow then there partners that got customary training. This at that point snowballs into the kid being put in a lower social financial section as a result of the kind of work they should agree to in adulthood. African-American understudies are disproportionally positioned in the custom curriculum framework around the nation. This distortion is might be because of instructor ineffectualness. Improving teachers’ ability to give socially responsive guidance to African American understudies resembles to improve understudy learning capacity (Darling-Hammond, 2004). New instructors must meet an energetic undergrad program to become affirmed they keep on graduating empower to successfully show African American understudies. Many leave program with a misguided judgment of dark understudies. They believe that the African American understudies are not as shrewd as different races. The motivation behind this examination is to demonstrate there is a deception of African American understudies in a specialized curriculum. I likewise plan to outline the issue of unbalanced portrayal of African American understudies in a custom curriculum isn't only a specialized curriculum issue or concern in any case, rather, must be seen in the setting as it alludes to bigotry in the entire instructive framework. I will examine how prejudice adds to and keeps up disproportionality in a custom curriculum by (a) deficiently subsidizing schools went to principally by African American and poor kids: (b) utilizing socially wrong and lethargic educational plan; (c) insufficiently getting ready instructors to adequately show African American students and different understudies of shading. I will demonstrate that to adequately address the issue of disproportionality, scientists, specialists andâ policymakers must place biased instructive asset portion, wrong educational program and instructional method and deficient educator arrangement at the focal point of training exploration, strategy, and practice. Hugeness of the Study There is a lot of noteworthiness for this examination. Being a custom curriculum instructor I have seen numerous understudies come to me since they were a social issue during their rudimentary years. I trust it is our duty to discover an answer for this developing issue. To start with, we as teachers, we have to see whether this race of understudies are get lost in the instructive framework. These understudies not getting appropriate instruction are causing a negative impact on as long as they can remember. This makes this specific gathering need to rely upon state help and debilitates the workforce. Also, we have to see whether there is an issue with educator readiness. In the event that this is a difficult we have to make sense of what should be possible in state schools and colleges to take care of these issues. Would including an all the more morally differing educational plan better get ready educators to instruct African American understudies? Most of the instructors coming out of school will spend there initial hardly any years encouraging intercity kids, with the greater part being African Americans. At long last we have to teach or youngsters to be dependable gainful residents. I feel that these youngsters are not being given an equivalent shot at being gainful in the event that they are being tossed in the custom curriculum class in the rear of the structure. We definitely know there is an issue, presently we have to cooperate to discover an answer that will best profit the understudies. Meaning of Terms Disproportionate numbers: Having more noteworthy portrayal inside a subgroupâ compared to the quantity of understudies in the populace all in all. A few scientists use give or take 10% to decide proportionality (Harry Anderson, 1994). Separation The capacity to make or see qualification; wisdom. Favoritism, or inclination, in the treatment of an individual or gathering, which is out of line, illicit, etc(Loren Orfield, 2002). It is my sentiment that African American kids are being put in a specialized curriculum in light of predispositions unreasonable gathering. High Achieving: School-wide direction of API (if in California) and Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) development more than three years all things considered. There must likewise be a base development of two deciles inside 3-5 years. ] Special Education: Services and supports intended to limit the effect of handicap and augment chance to develop and learn (Hehir, 2007). Impediment, Delimitation and Assumptions Limitations of Study The restrictions of this examination is discover willing takes part, as a result of the reasons I have talked about before guardians will concede that their youngster was put in a custom curriculum due to an absence of information on their part. Another impediment that will influence them result of this exploration is on the grounds that I am straightforwardly utilized in the ward that I have decided to do investigate. This position will restrain the viability of my examination as a result of understudy protection and my situation in the ward. It is additionally my conclusion that school areas won't have any desire to discharge data that could conceivable be utilized against them. As expressed before I consider understudies shading or being illicit named understudies with exceptional needs and put in a specialized curriculum. These are a couple of components that could constrain my examination. Delimitations of the Study External legitimacy might be affected dependent on the quantity of understudy/guardians being met. Approve might be affected because of other minority races not being remembered for the examination. Additionally the size and school areas may constrain my capacity to get satisfactory information to completely demonstrate my speculation. The little example populace was plausible for my examination rather then wandering out into bigger regions. This is critical in that the discoveries may not be appropriate to different schools. Suspicions of the Study References Artiles, A. J. (2003). Extraordinary education’s evolving personality: Paradoxes and issues in perspectives on culture and space. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 164-202. Artiles, A. J. , Rueda, R. , Salazar, J. J. , Higareda, I. (2005). Inside gathering assorted variety in minority unbalanced portrayal: English language students in urban school locale. Excellent Children, 71, 283-300. Billingsley, B. (2004). Specialized curriculum teachers’ maintenance and steady loss: A basic examination of the exploration writing. Medicinal and Special Education, 25, 22-39. Blair, C. , Scott, K. G. (2002). Extent of LD positions related with low financial status: Evidence for inclination. Diary of Special Education, 36, 14-22. Blanchett, W. J. , Mumford, V. , Beachum, F. (2005). Urban school disappointment and disproportionality in a post-Brown time. Therapeutic and Special Education, 26, 70-81. Chamberlain, S. P. (2005). Issues of overrepresentation and instructive value for socially and semantically assorted understudies. Mediation in School and Clinic, 41, 110-113. Countinho, M. J. , Oswald, D. P. , Best, A. M. (2002). The impact of sociodemographics and sex on the lopsided recognizable proof of minority understudies as having learning disabi

Syllabus: Rational Number and Gwalior Glory High

Compose laws of forces and types (alongside one model) in an AY Size sheet. Puzzle comprehending dependent on Rational Nose. Science l-Explore your cooler or capacity cabinet and rundown 8-10 food things that are protected utilizing additives. Get some answers concerning the method of activity of every additive record the information in a given plain organization. Al-Product Name Method of bundling Expiry date Method of (fixed pack, bottle, can, container and so on ) (best previously) safeguarding You can take help from pig. 18 of your science book. Or then again To make a breeze chem.. (Clue : Use 4-6 bits of empty metal containers of various lengths †paint them in various colors.Hang them on a cardboard so they swing and strike one another) Social Studies l-Collect photos of certain assets you use in your home and homeroom and make a montage in your duplicate with the photos. Al-Write the Preamble of the Indian Constitution in your duplicate. Sick Visit a gallery and discover the different wellsprings of data of current history. Glue the photos and mark them in your duplicate. PC Prepare a record or an outline clarifying the kinds of networks.Write laws of types alongside one model on AY Size Sheet. Q. 2 Solve the riddle dependent on reasonable numbers. Peruse the given intimations Smallest arrangement of numbers which is shut under deduction. Some of the structure p where p, q are whole numbers and q 0 q 7 A number detachable by Related to a procedure on sane number which gives same outcome in any event, when the number change places. Inverse of the word negative Additive character for objective numbers A prime number which is aggregate of a significantly number and a prime number.

Good to Know Why Companies Really Hire Consultants

Good to Know Why Companies Really Hire Consultants The other day, I was having a conversation with a friend of mine named Morgan. Morgan owns a firm that specializes in provision of IT services to corporates. Due to an increasingly competitive marketplace, Morgan had been forced to bring down his rates in order to retain clients, but this ate into his profits.The firm was barely surviving.At his wits end, Morgan decided to bring in consultants to help him figure out how to return the firm to profitability. After examining the firm’s operations and marketing strategy, the consultants recommended operational changes that helped reduce costs.They also recommended a new marketing strategy that helped the firm attract clients while charging a higher fee than most competitors. In the long run, Morgan’s firm was able to return to profitability. The conversation with Morgan got me thinking about the importance of consultants to companies.Consulting has become ubiquitous in almost every industry. SMEs in the UK spend about £60 billion pe r year on average, while companies in the United States spent $58.7 billion on consulting in 2016. The figure in the United States represented a 7.1% increase from the previous years, which points to a likelihood that expenditure on consulting will continue increasing.Despite this, the use of consultants remains controversial. Hiring consultants is essentially paying third parties to come into your organization, try to understand your operations and then come up with strategies on how you can further improve on what you are already doing.This brings about an important question: why leave such an important element of your organization to third parties? Why would these outsiders be better at strategizing for your organization than your in-house employees who already know the business inside out?Sometimes, hiring consultants has been compared to giving someone your watch so that they can tell you the time and then paying them top dollar for telling you the time.Because of this, many bu sinesses and organizations struggle with the decision of whether to hire a consultant or not. Should your business spend money on consultants? Do they add any value to your business? To make it easier for you to make this decision, let us take a look at some of the top reasons why companies really hire consultants. TO BRING IN EXPERTISERunning a business is a very dynamic experience. Very often, businesses will come across situations they have never had to deal with before, such as launching a new product, entering new markets, merging with another company, and so on.These situations are very critical, and might put the whole business at risk if poorly managed. At the same time, these situations require specialized skill sets that the company might not have access to in house. It is next to impossible for a company to have on staff all the expertise needed to successfully navigate unfamiliar situations.To navigate such situations, a company might turn to consultants to bring in the expertise and specialized skill set required to properly handle these situations. Consultants often specialize in specific niches.They will have handled similar situations a couple dozen times. They know what to do, the potential pitfalls to avoid in order to minimize risk, and they have a track record that speaks for itself.By bringing in consultants, companies have a way to fill in any talent gaps on demand whenever they need it. Once the challenging situation has been successfully navigated, the company can then let go of the consultants without having to worry about any continued costs.TO GAIN EXTERNAL PERSPECTIVERemember writing essays back in school? After writing the essay, you typically went through it a couple of times in a bid to find and correct any mistakes before submission. Here’s the funny thing. Even after proof-reading your essay several times, asking a friend to go through your essay one time would reveal some glaring mistakes that you had missed all through. In this case, it takes a fresh pair of eyes to find obvious mistakes you might have missed. The same happens in business.Since you are too close to your company, you might become blind to obvious mistakes that an outsider can easily spot. This is especially true for small to mid-size companies where the management and owners are too attached to the company since they have invested a lot of their time, resources and energy into the company.The only difference is that while an error in your essay may lead to a low score, mistakes in your business can have very significant consequences.To avoid missing the obvious because of their attachment, senior management might decide to bring in a fresh pair of eyes to provide an external perspective of the business.Since consultants have no emotional connection to the company, it is easier for them to spot and call out the issues that might be holding the company back, especially if these issues arise from an error of judgment on the part of the co mpany’s management.In addition, it is easier for outsiders to question how things are done. In many situations, in house staff may be reluctant to point out problems because they are afraid that it will be equated to causing trouble and lead to their dismissal.This creates an environment where staff may be aware of problems but opt not to address them, leaving the problem to escalate. Since consultants are not worried about being labelled as trouble-makers, they are more likely to question assumptions and call out strategies that don’t seem to be working.TO BENEFIT FROM EXTENSIVE KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDUSTRYConsultants often have extensive experience and knowledge about their respective industries. They have worked with several companies within this industry, studied and implemented different strategies and are aware of everything there is to know about the industry. They might even have worked with your competitors and are aware of the strategies they are using.They have seen what works and what does not. By bringing consultants in, you get the chance to tap in into their extensive knowledge and experience and get recommendations that can help your company to easily outsmart your competitors.TO SUPPLEMENT STAFFIn some cases, a company might be aware of the problems it is facing and what it needs to do to resolve the problem. Unfortunately, the company’s staff might be tied up in other important tasks that cannot be placed on the back-burner.Most likely, the available staff will be needed to focus on their day-to-day operations and other tasks that maintain the cash flow of the company. They cannot simply be transferred to the new task. In this case, it makes sense for businesses to hire consultants to supplement their staff.Why not hire additional staff instead? The problem is that hiring full-time staff is an expensive affair. With full-time employees, you have to factor in the costs of salaries and other benefits, onboarding and training, advertising for the open positions and other recruiting expenses, employment taxes, space needs, equipment, and other costs associated with management of employees. While a consultants fees are typically hire than an employee’s salary, hiring a full-time employee is more expensive in the long run. In addition, most projects that require a company to hire consultants are one-off projects lasting just a few weeks or months. If you hire full-time employees, you might not have enough work to keep them busy once the project is done, yet you have to continue paying their salaries and benefits.Hiring consultants also allows you to get value for your money. In the case of full-time employees, their remuneration is not directly linked to their performance. Once you hire a full-time employee, you have to pay their monthly salary regardless of how they perform on the job.With consultants, you have the option of discussing deliverables and performance metrics, such that you only pay once these deliverables and metrics are met. Hiring consultants is a way of ensuring that you get your money’s worth. In addition, hiring consultants is more efficient on your time.According to a report shared on Glassdoor, it takes an average of 23.7 days to make a hiring decision.This does not even factor in the tie taken to onboard and train the new employees. Consultants, on the other hand, are used to switching around companies and are therefore used to faster learning curves. Because of all this, companies might opt to hire consultants to supplement their staff temporarily instead of hiring full-time employees.TO BRING ABOUT CHANGEHiring consultants can also be a great way of bringing about change within a company. People don’t like change, both in their personal and professional lives.Bringing about change in an entire organization is particularly difficult. Before implementing change, the organization’s management have to consider things such as employee morale, corporate culture of the organ ization and so on. This can make it quite challenging to implement the change. In such situations, it might be wise to hire consultants to implement the change.Consultants are good at implementing change for a number of reasons. Since they are outsiders, they don’t know about and are not afraid of impacting the corporate culture. In addition, consultants do not suffer from status quo bias, which is the tendency of people to want things to remain the same, thus making it difficult for them to see things beyond their current paradigm.People within the companies are subject to this bias because they have gotten used to established ways of doing things. In this case, it might be difficult for them to realize that their current practices might be to blame for their current problems. Since these practices worked for the company before, they keep implementing the same practices even if the changing times demand new practices.There is a story about a company that used to deliver goods thr ee days a week, on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. On the remaining days, the company’s lorries sat idly in the garage, despite the fact that there were delivery runs to be made. A newly employed manager thought that this was very inefficient, and he set out to find out the reason behind this delivery schedule. His first inquiry was met with a very common and popular answer: we’ve always done it that way.Not satisfied, he inquired further.In the end, he discovered that having been started a century ago, there were no automobiles, therefore the company used to make deliveries using horse carriages. Since the horses had to rest, it was decided that deliveries would be made three times a week so that the horses could rest in between deliveries. The same schedule was adopted even after the company switched to lorries. Can you imagine that?Just like the new manager, consultants do not have the status quo bias. They are not predisposed to using the same outdated practices because that i s the way things have always been done. They don’t have qualms about questioning the thinking behind established practices. This makes them great catalysts for change.In addition, companies might be afraid of change because suggested changes are untested, therefore there is some concern that they might not be successful. Consultants, on the other hand, might have tested these ideas on another company and confirmed their effectiveness, therefore making it easier for them to implement the changes with full confidence that the changes will actually be effective.TO PROVIDE OBJECTIVITYVery often, business decisions are usually influenced by emotions and office politics. This is not a huge problem for normal, day to day decisions. However, businesses cannot afford to have serious decisions that affect the future of the company influenced by petty things like office politics.For instance, an employee might keep their concerns to themselves even when they think the wrong decision is being made because they are afraid that their boss will take credit for their ideas, or simply because they don’t like their boss.This leads to decisions being made irrationally and without critical input.   In this case, hiring consultants is a great way of providing much needed objectivity when making decisions. Consultants do not care about office politics, allowing them to make rational, independent and critical decisions.Additionally, the objectivity provided by consultants can help save companies from something known as the sunk cost fallacy. Sometimes, companies might opt to continue investing in non-profitable projects even though it is almost certain that the best decision is to stop the project in order to prevent further losses.The typical justification for this is that since significant resources have already been invested in the project, the company should try and recoup the investment before ending the project. In many cases, this only leads to more losses. In such cases, consultants can objectively evaluate the project and help the company make decision to cut further losses by ending such a project.TO DO THE DIRTY WORKThis is closely related to the previous reason. Running a businesses is not easy, and sometimes, business executives are forced to make some necessary yet unpopular decisions. For instance, in a bid to cut costs, a manager might need to lay off some staff, to eliminate a product line or do away with an entire department.Making such decisions can be challenging. Would you be comfortable knowing that because of a decision you made, 20 people you know personally are not going to have a source of income? At the same time, such decisions have to be made for the sake of the company. In such scenarios, a company can bring in consultants as ‘mercenaries’ to do the dirty work. The CEO or management can distance itself from the unpopular decision by using the consultants as the scape goat.TO PROVIDE VALIDATIONSometimes, companies have an i dea of what they want to do or the direction they want to take, but they are not very sure whether it is the best course of action. In such cases, the company might need someone to look at their intended course of action and give it a stamp of approval. Consultants might come in to provide this validation. To make this easier to understand, let us use an illustration.Assume that you want to start exercising so that you can take part in next year’s marathon. While you know what you want to do, you might still see a doctor to confirm that your body can handle the vigorous exercise associated with training for a marathon. This is what a consultant does. Like the doctor, they confirm whether what you want to do is actually good for the company.The validation from consultants can also come in handy if you want to raise resources from third parties.For instance, if you are preparing a business plan with the aim of using it to secure funding, the bank might ask you to hire consultants to proof-test your business plan before giving you the funds. In this case, the consultant provides validation that your plan is actually workable, thus allowing you to secure the funding.TO TEACH OR TRAIN EMPLOYEESEmployees are a company’s greatest asset, so it is important for companies to invest in developing their employees’ skills. In today’s competitive world, continually training employees allows them to perform their roles effectively and give the company an edge over its competitors.Training is especially important when the company adopts new technology, since employees have to learn how to use new software, operate new equipment or implement a new workflow. For instance, if the company switched from Oracle to SAP, employees need to learn how to use the new ERP.At the same time, sending employees out for external training might not be very effective, especially if a large number of employees have to be trained over a short period of time. In such situations, the best be t for a company is to hire a consultant to train employees.Since consultants are always on top of new developments in their industry, they are best placed to teach companies’ staff what they need for the company to stay competitive. Before commencing a training program, consultants first take some time to understand the company and the come up with customized training programs that are specific to the company and aligned with the company’s culture and training needs.Since consultants perform the training on-site, there is less interference on the day to day activities of the workforce. Using consultants to conduct internal training is also a lot more effective, since employees are trained using real-life problems, challenges and examples that they come across every day at work. It teaches employees the exact skills they need in order to effectively and successfully perform their roles.Hiring consultants to offer internal training is also more cost effective than sending out empl oyees for external training, especially if a large number of employees need to be trained.TO SAVE TIMEPicture the following scenario: a company is thinking about introducing a new product or service to the market, but it first needs to conduct some research to determine whether there is a ready market for the new product or service.Unfortunately, the company cannot afford to have its managers spending their time on an idea that might even not work. Because of this, the idea for a new product or service is placed on the backburner and is eventually forgotten.This doesn’t have to happen. Instead of spending valuable time on a moonshot project or placing it on the backburner, a company might opt to bring in consultants to help with the market research.The consultants can devote their time in conducting the research and then present data on the viability of the product, thus making it possible for the management to make the decision whether to move ahead with the idea or not, while sa ving the company the time it would have spent conducting its own research.This is not restricted to product launches only. By taking over some not-so-crucial tasks, consultants help companies save time while at the same time allowing managers to concentrate on their main duties.WRAPPING UPMany companies struggle with the decision on whether to hire consultants or not. As you have seen, consultants add a lot of value and can support companies in a lot of ways.If your company finds itself in a situation where it needs to bring in temporary expertise, gain an external perspective, benefit from extensive industry knowledge, supplement staff, implement change, make some unpopular decisions, or gain validation for its strategies, hiring consultants might be a great option.Consultants can also provide objectivity, train employees and help the company to save time.

Air Pollution And Air Pollutants Essay - 1883 Words

Air pollution is characterized by the introduction or rise in air gases and particles beyond the standard levels of clean air (EPA, 2016a). Types of air pollutants vary depending on the source, such as industries, motor vehicles, combustion or natural sources; however, certain air pollutants have drawn more attention because of their widespread and health effects (EPA, 2016a). Examples of these pollutants are: ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds and particulate matters (EPA, 2016a). A recent report from the World Health Organization states that 98% of the cities in low and middle income countries and 56% of cities in high income countries don’t meet the WHO’s air quality standards indicating high levels of pollution (WHO, 2016). In the US, national data on air quality shows improvement in the levels of air pollutants in the past 16 years (EPA, n.d.). Specifically, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, o zone, PM10 and PM2.5 dropped by 60%, 91%, 45%, 69%, 17%, 36% and 37% respectively, yet ozone and particulate matter remained among the highest pollutants (EPA, n.d.; American Lung Association, 2016). While a similar trend of improvement in air pollution can be seen across cities and counties in the US, it is well documented that some counties score substantially higher all year round on air pollution quality standards (EPA, n.d.). Located in Southern California, Los Angeles has been repeatedly reported asShow MoreRelatedThe Pollution Of The Air Pollutants Essay1870 Words   |  8 Pagesin the air pollutants coming from a car but little did they know what the consequences that smell or the soot may present. 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The survival of human beings and animals greatly depend on the combination of gasses in the atmosphere; slight disruption of this composition can cause devastating effects on their existence. An imbalance in these

The Truth About Critical Thinking

The Truth About Critical Thinking Attention spans are becoming shorter in part as a result of proliferation of new media, for example, web, email and texting. Many also consist of worthwhile information regarding the history and culture of the region. There are an assortment of free printable critical thinking worksheets readily available online. Some problems are large and unmistakable, such as failure of an air-freight shipping service to acquire packages to customers in time. Critical thinking, along with creativity, refine the result as nurses can discover certain solutions to certain difficulties with creativity taking place where traditional interventions aren't powerful. Nurses utilize critical thinking in each and every shift, Sollars states. To have the ability to think critically in your classroom and truly feel safe will give them experience and courage in actual life. Group settings are the ideal method to acquire your children thinking. Apart from all the regular subjects, there are specific other crucial skills that kids want to develop. Encouraging students to create connections to a real-life circumstance and identify patterns is a good way to practice their critical thinking abilities. Let's look at the crucial actions in developing critical thinking skills. Let's get to the crucial thinking skills that genuinely matter. What You Don't Know About Critical Thinking Questions should be requested to acquire a deep understanding about the issue. Becoming in a position to ask open-ended questions is a significant skill to developand bonus points for being in a position to probe, Potrafka states. 1 solution typically does not fit all. The very first step in the critical thinking process is to recognize the circumstance or problem in addition to the factors that might influence it. The last step is to construct an evaluation about the problem that may be placed into action. Once the issue is identified, the next thing to do is to understand the circumstance and the facts aligned with that. Also ignored is essential input from different experts, and patients and families. It's fantastic for students to be in a position to reason. Utilizing the nursing process, students may narrow down their alternatives to pick the best one. Whispered Critical Thinking Secrets Remember to reflect when you have gathered all of the info. As a consequence, researchers and educators must think about the myriad of CT measures readily available, to be able to recognize the very best and the most suitable measures, dependent on the CT conceptualisation employed for training. Much like class ifying, students will have to look closely at every topic or object they are comparing and really consider the importance of each one. The Number One Question You Must Ask for Critical Thinking In many instances, consideration of a single element from a different perspective will reveal prospective dangers in pursuing our choice. Perhaps the initial step in applying the advantages of analytic philosophy to your life is to realize the thoughts you have and why you make the decisions you do so that you can experience a new outcome. As you proceed through the process of utilizing critical thinking to resolve an issue, usage techniques such as documenting precisely what you're thinking or bounce it off another person. In case the fashion in which you measure something doesn't match, or assess the parameters set out in the manner in which you define that, then you haven't been successful in operationally defining it. 1 quality of a very good critical thinker is the capability to ask on-target questions. Critical thinkers have the ability to look at their biases and don't make it possible for them to compromise their thinking processes. Critical thinking uses many procedures. It is used in many situations. The capacity to multi-task isn't a poor thing. You've got a job interview for a position which you feel you're only partially qualified for, although you really need the job and you're excited about the prospects. You choose to only watch a good show each day and use that opportunity to learn a new language daily. To get to the cap of the skyscraper, or the sixth level, students have to be in a position to synthesize the info from the story and formulate their own opinions.

Obligations Kin Have Toward One Another Free Essays

string(42) " allies and noticeable displays of power\." 1. â€Å"The social and cultural system in which we live in determines who we define as kin.† Describe the a) economic; b) political/power, c) moral obligations kin have toward one another in this society. We will write a custom essay sample on Obligations Kin Have Toward One Another or any similar topic only for you Order Now Since the Trobriand society follows a strict belief in matrilineage, the relationship between the mother and her family as well as the father and his family is very important. Economically, the status of a person in the family, would often determine how many items he receives, and/or gives during a marriage, death and important events such as gardening that continues throughout the years. Depending on the individual’s rank in society, the services one receives at different occasions are fit to their rank. A chief for example, at death would receive the highest mourning ritual of all. This consists of both his matrilineal relatives – â€Å"owners† and those connected through marriage or patrilineage, are the â€Å"workers†, performing duties in honor of their deceased relative. Birth, for Trobrianders links the infant with a dead matrilineal ancestor, in this way the new generations play an active role in keeping the connection between the past and the future of the family. A father’s matrlineage plays a key role in the child’s status as well; the father is responsible for providing gifts for the child that will establish that child’s acceptance into the society. These roles are moral obligations of the different members of the family and very often establishments that family’s power. The power of yams in this society plays a very important economical as well as social part in the lives of kin. A man’s yam house is a representation of that man’s wealth, as well as another man’s fine gardening skills and a woman’s status, since she is the title owner of the yams. Often, yams are used as a symbol of wealth at harvest festivals where women compete for the wealth title by bringing in yams. The higher the title, the more praise and honor goes to that woman’s matrilineage. In marriage, people from the bride’s side of the family bring gifts of yams to the groom’s relatives; later they are awarded with valuables depending on the generosity of the yam giving. Therefore, yams and valuable items such as stone axe-blades often serve in economical exchanges that define the relationships and status of the givers and receivers in the society. 2.Describe how the sexual division of labor/ specialization occurs in this society. Include an analysis of how this is related to their concepts of â€Å"male† and â€Å"female†. Women in the society of the Trobrianders play a key role. They provide the needed amount of banana leaf bundles and skirts during the death of a relative, and yams when the reputation of the family is at stake. The female is the one that supposedly determines a child’s identity when the spirit of an infant is sent to enter her body by her matrilineal ancestors. The woman’s yam supply comes into play with a need for her husband to purchase bundles. Though men are the ones that labor on the yam gardens and plant general gardens for the family’s food consumption, the woman receives the yams, as she is the one that holds the title. The man also plays a key role in his child’s acceptance into society he works to get his child important gifts such as Chama shells that symbolize the first important political step in a child’s life. While the man is the obvious breadwinner in society, servings as the gardener, the carver, the orator, the chief and so on, the woman is the nurturer of the home, the infant and the important family possessions such as yams, skirts and such. 3.â€Å"Society and culture are reproduced across the generations through socialization.† Explain how this occurs in this society. The Trobriand society is bound closely by their dependency on kin relations, fear of sorcery and a strong belief in their authority, the chief. The strong influence of a chief evaluates the presenting political state of the Trobrianders, they are unwilling to change as shown by experimenters such as those of John K. The society holds utmost respect for chiefs and does everything in their power to stay respectful and not anger the powerful sorcerers. This brings us to magic, which is both good and bad, the family spells are passed on from generation to generation, while the bad ones are feared and are often protected against. The currency of the society is mostly yams, since so many exchanges and rituals are performed with them. At death, birth, and marriage, the exchange of yams and other valuables serves as the connection between different kin and the alliances present are guarded with care. Hard work is valued high in the society, during marriage the man must show his bride that he is a hard worker and a loyal father, as this influences the way his child shall be viewed and accepted. Social values are passed on to children as they grow up and experiment with love and sexuality, yet as soon as marriage is declared, the couple must prove to their society that they are ready to become adults and uphold their families. 4. Assess how this society’s religious belief system and practices, and moral standards are used to promote, maintain, and perpetuate: a) power and authority, b) social organization and control; c) economic exchange and reciprocity. Include the function of myths and symbols in your comments. The Trobriand society belief in power and authority is embedded in their chiefdom. The respect given to a chief is out of both respect and fear. It is known throughout the society that the chief knows powerful spells and if one were to disrespect or anger him, the consequences could be deadly and last for generations to come. Superiority of the chief is demonstrated during a kayasa or yam competition, which allows for new political allies and noticeable displays of power. You read "Obligations Kin Have Toward One Another" in category "Essay examples" The passing of the chief and all the mourning rituals and traditions that follow, show the status of that chief and his value in the society, as well as his ability to have more than one wife. Social organization and control are instilled in family relationships and their ties to other families through marriage. Both matrilineal ties and clan ties are important to the society so that families, their possessions and beliefs and status are passed on from generation to generation. Some key beliefs such as spells that can be cast upon others, result in things such as post mourning exchanges and the lessons to children of not accepting food from strangers. It is believed that death before old age is the result of sorcery therefore traditions uphold that protection spells are learned and gifts to family members are given to rid oneself from possible accusations. Economic exchange becomes highly important during marriage as gifts are given back and forth from the bride’s family to the groom’s. The importance of the groom’s mother cooking during the first year of the marriage is also key as it shows the deep interdependence of kin in the society. Example such as yam gardens, which are built by bride’s brothers and fathers, show the deep relations that both sides of the family have to keep in order for the society to survive. 5. Establishing one’s identity is a complex mixture of many variables including a) ethnicity; b) gender; c) caste; d) class; e) race; f) sexuality; g) ritualized role/status changes; and h) age. How does each of these variables factor into establishing one’s identity in this culture? The Trobriand society has many variables that define one’s identity in the society. Ethnicity and race of the Trobrianders is the same throughout the society, the only difference is the location of different villages on the island. Gender, divides the society into labor divisions and cultural roles. The men tend to yam gardens while the women make banana leaf skirts and participate in yam exchanges. Both work hard in their divisions to provide for a common goal of providing for their immediate and extended family. Class defines the amount of power and valuable possessions the individual has. A chief might have more several wives, while a fatherless child will be at a disadvantage of being looked down upon throughout its life. Sexuality often defines a young Trobriander on his or her way to adulthood, experimenting with different partners on a search for a mate to last them until death. Once, the couple is married talk of their sexuality is strictly forbidden and can be the biggest insult. Ritualized role and status changes have to include marriage and death. During marriage, a bride moves in with the husband and the husband’s mother cooks for them for an entire year as the couple eats together. Once the year has passed, the wife cooks for the husband for the rest of their marriage and the meals are eaten separately. In death, the spirit is believed to be sent to the island of Tuma, therefore many careful rituals are performed so that the spirit gets there safe and sound and that its continued life on the island shall be as good as the one it left. Age is a key determinant of the individual in the society. An infant enters the society in the hand of his parents, it is their role to make sure that it receives the proper care and gifts to be accepted into the society with class and status. Once an adolescent the individual is on a search for a mate, which brings him/her to the next state – adulthood. This is not defined by age but by marital status, from then on, the individual is an adult and their status is determined by family relations. Whether they are a mother, father, a grandparent, sibling and so on, determines their identity in this culture. 6. Even in societies that place a high value on egalitarianism, many forms of hierarchy and inequality are found. What types and kinds appear in this society? How are they perpetuated? Although the sport for fame is a fair game among the Trobrianders, several forms of inequality are noticed. For example, â€Å"The attainment of kula shells provides means to realize fame, but such fame must still be attached to a more elementary kind of immortality – that of lineage†(157) Meaning that a person with good negotiating skills can build fame into a permanent hierarchy, like the chief Vanoi, and establish power over other players. Inequality is also noted in the values of gender. Women for example, are no longer equal dance partners at Cricket matches, and dress in traditional finery as spectator (114). While men hold the higher positions in the society, the role of women overshadows the men in its importance. The â€Å"women draw on their husbands’ resources to make their own matrilineage strong.†(121) though the system is of checks and balances the women’s wealth controls the overall hierarchy of the society. In case of a death during the harvest year, yam competitions are replaced by competitions in women’s wealth, where the women â€Å"owners† are in control. Tradition and custom perpetuate the inequalities and the hierarchy of the Trobriand society, as the people are used to the numerous and complicated social and cultural exchanges that occur throughout the community. â€Å"Although the debt created through yams enables a man to become more dominant as a leader†¦.a man cannot fill his own yam house, he is always dependent on other men.†(122) 7.What is the relationship between a) marriage and residence; and b) property and descent in this society? Property for Trobrianders can be houses and yam supplies, special rare items or banana leaf bundles, etc. All these things are directly related to social relationship of the individuals in the society. Take a couple who eats yams together to announce their marriage, they are directly linking yams, which is property, to marriage. Same goes for the food that the groom’s mother provides for a year after marriage, and the exchange that occurs during the marriage. â€Å"In marriage exchanges, each person from the bride’s side who contributed to the first yam exchange receives a valuable when they are collected by the groom’s relatives.†(87) Yam competitions or the kayasa, are organized to â€Å"make friends† or in better words form relationships between men from another clan, in order to gain power. â€Å"Lovers, too are called, â€Å"good friends,† but only marriage stabilizes relationships between clans, shifting individual competition and seduction into permanent obligations.†(112) this intertwined web of social bonds between men in different lineages and clans, is affected by the cultural exchanges of valuables and the harvesting of yams. The preparation of bundles and skirts id dedicated to the women, while the harvesting and voyages and done by men. â€Å"Because a women and her husband receive yams from her brother every year, her husband must help her find bundles whenever someone dies who was a member of her matrilineage.†(120). Therefore, women’s wealth is intimately tied to yam production, and the exchanges between a woman, her husband, and her brother. The limited currency of bundles and yams, in the exchange relationship operates as a system of checks and balances. It is the woman’s job to feed on her husband’s resources to make her matrilineage look strong. How to cite Obligations Kin Have Toward One Another, Essay examples

Steep Analysis free essay sample

High growth rate and GAP in most regions (the Sun,2013) In the second quarter of 2013, Malaysian GAP grew at a seasonally adjusted 1. 4 percent over the previous quarter, recovering from the first quarters 0. percent contraction NOAA Tabor, 2013) Positive The flow of goods and people will continue to increase over time resulting in massive investments as most investors are ran by an increase in the growth of the economy of which in this case is at 4. 5 5 percent range this year. C) Transport development strongly focuses on urban areas following the global trend of arbitration. (transport logistics, 2013) Positive Research has shown that only 69% of rural residents have access to reliable transport. So Hermes will generate more income. Hermes uses the manual system to record and track its daily business processes Negative. This not only takes too much time but it also creates a window for errors and mishandling off lot of documents. ) With IBM opening a global delivery centre in Cybercafà © things are looking up. We will write a custom essay sample on Steep Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (Chon, X) Positive There will be Job opportunities plus Hermes will get to implement IT systems in order to aid in improving work flow. ) There is a massive change in technology. Negative With technology advancing every day, soon there will be technologies developed to reduce the need to travel which will result in loss of potential and current clients. G) Internet exposure Spanish population was subjected to high noise levels Negative According to he World Trade Organization, if all countries could reach the western way of life, it would take three Earths planet to supply us with the necessary energy and natural resources J) Ozone layer depletion (2013, Michael Barrett, Melbourne,27/06/07) Positive Since logistic companies were built service industry driven by abundant and cheap fossil fuels and being invisible to the regard of the public, it will now move to the front of public awareness. The minister of Malaysia to eliminate Fiscal deficit by 2020. ( Bahrain Oceanography And Jason Eng, 2012) Positive The fiscal deficit was expected to fall to 4. % in 2012 from 5. 4% in 2011 and will continue to fall all throughout until 2020. Malaysias trade tax and customs duties have proved to be the main drivers of government income, as about 5. 6% of Malaysias population pays personal income tax. The tax is not expected to be implemented until 2014, that meaner that the company will not need to impose higher prices for their services hence more people will use it. 2. Bank Engage Malaysia maintains the Overnight Policy Rate at 3. 00 % NOAA Tabor, 11 July 2013) Positive This proves that the economic state in Malaysia caters for the population which will enable them to afford using Hermes. Furthermore the capital expenditure in the domestic-oriented industries and the constant implementation of organization projects will also support investment activity

Free Essays on Restaurant

I. INTRODUCTION: My research paper is about an evaluation of the Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant in attracting American customer (WS, pg: 110) lunch trade. The reason I’m interested in this topic is because I like to know why the restaurant is doing good business for a long time. I have some personal experience being a waitress, as well as an assistant manager in Ayhan’s shish Kebab Restaurant. Therefore, I can make some analysis (WS, pg: 16) on my experience and the reasons why the restaurant is attracting American customers. In my opinion, some reasons play the most significant role in success of the Ayhan's Shish Kebab Restaurant in regards to American customer lunch trade. Since Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant’s motto relies on customer satisfaction, it is better for me to use my marketing (WS, pg: 277) knowledge and my background to analyze some reasons. II. BACKGROUND SECTION: â€Å"Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant is mainly a Turkish restaurant. The restaurant has four different locations, all of which provide a wide variety of menu and serve quality for reasonable prices.† (Canas, Interview, November 2002) Like Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant, â€Å" Turkish cuisine has the extra privilege of being at the cross-roads of the far East and the Mediterranean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Plaza, 9) â€Å"†¦the Turkish cuisine is a rich and varied number of dishes, which can be prepared and combined with other dishes in meals of almost infinite variety, but always in a non-arbitrary way.† (Plaza, 15) â€Å" When meat is used, it is used sparingly. Even with the meat kebabs, the â€Å"pide† or the flat bread occupies the largest part of the portion along with vegetables or yogurt. (Plaza, 12) III. PERSONAL AND ACADEMIC ANALYSIS 1. Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant has success in attracting American customer lunch trade because of quality service (WS, pg: 389). According to my website: â€Å" The analogy works perfectly much like Mexicans i... Free Essays on Restaurant Free Essays on Restaurant I. INTRODUCTION: My research paper is about an evaluation of the Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant in attracting American customer (WS, pg: 110) lunch trade. The reason I’m interested in this topic is because I like to know why the restaurant is doing good business for a long time. I have some personal experience being a waitress, as well as an assistant manager in Ayhan’s shish Kebab Restaurant. Therefore, I can make some analysis (WS, pg: 16) on my experience and the reasons why the restaurant is attracting American customers. In my opinion, some reasons play the most significant role in success of the Ayhan's Shish Kebab Restaurant in regards to American customer lunch trade. Since Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant’s motto relies on customer satisfaction, it is better for me to use my marketing (WS, pg: 277) knowledge and my background to analyze some reasons. II. BACKGROUND SECTION: â€Å"Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant is mainly a Turkish restaurant. The restaurant has four different locations, all of which provide a wide variety of menu and serve quality for reasonable prices.† (Canas, Interview, November 2002) Like Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant, â€Å" Turkish cuisine has the extra privilege of being at the cross-roads of the far East and the Mediterranean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Plaza, 9) â€Å"†¦the Turkish cuisine is a rich and varied number of dishes, which can be prepared and combined with other dishes in meals of almost infinite variety, but always in a non-arbitrary way.† (Plaza, 15) â€Å" When meat is used, it is used sparingly. Even with the meat kebabs, the â€Å"pide† or the flat bread occupies the largest part of the portion along with vegetables or yogurt. (Plaza, 12) III. PERSONAL AND ACADEMIC ANALYSIS 1. Ayhan’s Shish Kebab Restaurant has success in attracting American customer lunch trade because of quality service (WS, pg: 389). According to my website: â€Å" The analogy works perfectly much like Mexicans i...

How to use commas - Emphasis

How to use commas How to use commas Compared with pondering the placement of the much less familiar semi-colon or the enigmatic apostrophe, the ubiquitous comma might seem hardly worth worrying about. They’re ten a penny, arent they? Why not just sprinkle them at will or leave them out entirely? Unsurprisingly, we don’t recommend doing either. They may seem a common or garden item of punctuation, but – just like the elderly in society – we can learn much from commas and should treat them with respect. So, use them: Â   Â   Â  to denote a natural pause, such as if you were reading aloud Unfortunately, commas are often underrated. Â   Â   Â  after a secondary clause that’s been put at the beginning of a sentence Although the comma had been left out of the speech, he still paused for dramatic effect. Â   Â   Â  to separate items in a list My job involves typing, proofreading, answering the phone and stocktaking commas. I’m looking for a tall, dark, handsome lover of punctuation. Â   Â   Â  to make it clear exactly how items are split (to avoid confusion, usually when the word ‘and’ is involved in the list) The courses on offer were Introduction to colons, Intensive comma revision, Hyphens and dashes, and Figures and numbers. Â   Â   Â  in pairs, for information additional to the main point (that could be lifted out to leave a sentence that still makes complete sense) The phone call, which lasted ten minutes, was mostly about Mary’s incorrect use of punctuation. However, the information contained by the two commas has to be ‘non-defining’ (not vital to the overall gist of the sentence); if it is ‘defining’, you would use no commas at all: The phone call that was about Mary’s poor punctuating was full of awkward pauses. Â   Â   Â  to introduce short quotes He said, ‘Let’s take a short break here.’ Changing sense Given the often ambiguous nature of our language, it is important to give pause to where you place your commas. Otherwise you may end up saying something other than you intended, or leaving your reader rather confused. Compare: However, you might feel the report is irrelevant [and we may take that into consideration] with However you might feel, the report is irrelevant [your opinion doesn’t really matter]. Or I donated, myself, to that charity [I, like you, am a philanthropist] and I donated myself to that charity [not sure how much use they’ll have for me]. Or even The Wombles of Wimbledon Common are we [thats why the Common is so tidy] and The Wombles of Wimbledon, common are we [can’t move for wombles while watching the tennis]. Commas can make subtle distinctions too. Observe the nuances: Our boss, who is based in Basingstoke, will be at that seminar and Our boss who is based in Basingstoke will be at that seminar. In the first example, there is only one boss. He may be based in Basingstoke, but that is not vital information (it is ‘non-defining’). The main point is that he’ll be at the seminar. In the second example, there are presumably several bosses. But it is specifically the one lucky enough to be based in Basingstoke who will attend the seminar. We’ve said it before and we’ll say it again: punctuation matters. Particularly if you want your writing to end up meaning what you meant it to.

Design Consulting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Design Consulting - Research Paper Example The objectives and goals have to be analyzed so as to be able to develop the training program. The factor that is addressed in this phase is the method that will be used and be convenient in the training. The training methods may be used include training via the internet or training that takes place in classrooms (Bari, 2000). The designer of the training session then puts up a layout that is useful in developing a document for design. The design document usually contains the content that is actual for design and an outline of the content. In this phase, storyboards that are useful in development and training are then created. The storyboards usually make use of graphics. The graphics available are useful in creating visuals that are used in complementing the content of training. After finalization and approval by business owners, the training is then launched. The curriculum that is used for training must be understood by the facilitators. The training process must also be understood properly. The training tools that are useful include software’s, manuals and books. The evaluation phase allows employees been trained to give feedbacks on the training session. Evaluation may be conducted by surveys. The surveys can be done by the use of paper media or

Project Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Project Management - Assignment Example The parties involved hereto acting with appropriate authority by their related firms. [Client name]  [agency information  Company name Company name Full name Full name Title Title Signature Signature Date Date Assignment 2 An Invitation for Bid (IFB) is a request made when submitting a bid to provide certain services or goods in order to fulfill a bid that a firm has identified. RFP is converted to an IFB when there is a considering the lowest price in making an award. Moreover, it is usually done when the services and goods are fairly simple and also when the need is standard. In converting RFP to IFB requirements would need to be adjusted then the government and the contractors will submit their offers again. Moreover, the other evaluation factors that were in the RFP would be removed. Assignment 3 contracts and procurement (supply bid for popcorns) Submitted by: Milano Suppliers Ltd. Street City, State, Zip Type of Business: good suppliers Title of Proposal: bid to supply popc orn kernels Proposed Amount: 30cts per pound of kernel Period of Performance: over 5 years Business Point of Contact: Name Telephone No. e-mail address Our clients include: Name Telephone No. e-mail address Name Telephone No. e-mail address Name Telephone No. ... with—the submission of this data, Puffy Pop shall have the right to duplicate, use, or disclose the data to the extent provided in the resulting contract. This restriction does not limit Puffy Pop's right to use information contained in this data if it is obtained from another source without restriction. Assignment 4 contracts and procurement A fixed price contract will be effective for the order of a pencil manufacturer to produce 20 000 pencils. This is because the product can be explicitly defined as there is enough data to accurately calculate approximately the cost. Moreover, the requirement for the order is well defined and the contractors have vast experience in ensuring the order is met. Therefore, the financial risks are insignificant. Cost plus contracts will be effective in the other three contracts. In the construction of a 300-meter bridge a cost plus contract is suitable due the risks attached to it. The contract is characterized by uncertain labor hours and spec ulative material required in the construction of the bridge. The design of a circuit board and the small factory are both long-term projects, which is likely to put the contractor in unforeseeable exposure to market uncertainties. This protects the Government and contractor in the case of labor or material fluctuations in price. Therefore, a fixed price convention is inappropriate Advantages CPAF contacts are widely used as it results in better communication and enhances motivation to achieve a better contract performance. Evaluation and motivation flexibility is advantageous in instances that require cost-reimbursement contracts. Moreover, it encourages efficient communication between the parties. Hence, the approach is an effective management tool. The disadvantage with this mode of contract

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation The past decade has shown, in greater or lesser degree, our carelessness and negligence in using our natural resources. The problems associated with contamination of natural resources are prominently increasing in many countries. Contaminated environment generally result from production, use, and disposal of hazardous substances from industrial activities. The problem is worldwide, and the estimated number of contaminated sites is significant. It is now widely recognized that contaminated environment is a potential threat to human health, and its continual discovery over recent years has led to international efforts to remedy many of these sites, to enable the site to be redeveloped for use. To bioremediate, means to use living things to eliminate environmental contamination such as contaminated soil or groundwater. Some microorganisms that live in soil and groundwater naturally eat certain chemicals that are harmful to people and the environment. The microorganisms are able to change these chemicals into water and harmless gases, such as carbon dioxide. Plants can also be used to clean up soil, water or air; this is called phytoremediation Bioremediation is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various con ­taminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology tech ­niques, which generally have a high public acceptance and can often be carried out on site. It will not always be suitable, however, as the range of contaminants on which it is effective is limited, the time scales involved are relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable may not always be appropriate. Although the methodologies employed are not technically complex, considerable experi ­ence and expertise may be required to design and implement a successful bioremediation program, due to the need to thoroughly assess a site for suitability and to optimize conditions to achieve a satisfacto ­ry result. Bioremediation has been used at a number of sites worldwide Here, we intended to assist by providing a straightforward, pragmatic view of the processes involved in bioremediation, the pros and cons of the technique, and the issues to be considered when dealing with a proposal for bioremediation. HISTORY Bioremediation has been described as a treatability technology that uses biological activity to reduce the concentration or toxicity of a pollutant. It commonly uses processes by which microorganisms transform or degrade chemicals in the environment (King 1). This use of microorganisms (mainly bacteria) to destroy or transform hazardous contaminants is not a new idea. Microorganisms have been used since 600 B.C. by the Romans and others to treat their wastewater. Although this same technology is still usedtoday to treat wastewater it has been expanded to treat an array of other contaminants. In fact, bioremediation has been used commercially for almost 30 years. The first commercial use of a bioremediation system was in 1972 to clean up a Sun Oil pipeline spill in Ambler, Pennsylvania CONVENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF REMEDIATION The conventional techniques used for remediation have been to dig up contaminated soil and remove it to a landfill, or to cap and contain the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling, and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and contain method is only an temporary solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitor ­ing and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants if possi ­ble, or at least to transform them to innocuous substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (e.g., base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). They can be very effective at reducing levels of a range of contaminants, but have several drawbacks, principally their technological complexity, the cost for small-scale appli ­cation, and the lack of public acceptance, especially for incineration that may increase the exposure to contaminants for both the workers at the site and nearby residents. Conventional ways of Bioremediation Dig up and remove it to a landfill Risk of excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material Very expensive to find another land to finally dispose these materials Cap and contain the contaminated area. Maintain it in the same land but isolate it Only an temporary solution Requires monitoring and maintenance of isolation barriers for a long time Better approaches: Destroy them completely, if possible Transform them in to harmless substances Drawbacks Technological complexity The cost for small scale application expensive Lack of public acceptance especially in incineration Incineration generates more toxic compounds Materials released from imperfect incineration cause undesirable imbalance in the atmosphere. Ex. Ozone depletion Fall back on earth and pollute some other environment Dioxin production due to burning of plastics leads to cancer May increase the exposure to contaminants, for both workers and nearby residents PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION Figure 1: Bioremediation Triangle There are three essential components needed for bioremediation. These three components are microorganisms, food, and nutrients. These three main components shown in Figure 1 are known as the bioremediation triangle. Microorganisms are found almost everywhere on earth with the exception of active volcanoes. So a lack of food and nutrients are usually the missing ingredients that prevent successful bioremediation. Microorganisms find the food they eat in the soil or water where they live. However, if a contaminant is present it can become an additional food source for the microorganisms. The contaminant serves two useful purposes for the microbes. First, the contaminant provides a source of carbon needed for growth. Second,the microbes obtain energy by breaking chemical bonds and transferring electrons away from the contaminant. This is known as an oxidation-reduction reaction. The contaminant that loses electrons is oxidized and the chemical that gains the electrons(electron acceptor) is reduced. The energy gained from the electron transfer is used along with the carbon and some electrons to produce more cells. Microbes generally use oxygenas an electron acceptor but nitrate, sulfate, iron, and CO2 are also commonly used. The use of oxygen as an electron acceptor is called aerobic respiration. The major byproducts of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide, water, and an increase in the microbe population. Anaerobic respiration uses nitrate, sulfate, iron, or CO2 as the electron acceptor instead of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration can occur after the oxygen has been depleted by aerobic respiration or where there is not sufficient oxygen in the first place. The process of anaerobic degradation has been ignored for many years. However, recently it has been gaining more attention; There are also several nutrients that must be accessible to the microorganisms for bioremediation to be successful. These include moisture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other trace elements. Microorganisms like other organisms need moisture to survive and grow.In addition, microbes depend on the moisture to transport food to them since they do not have mouths. The optimal moisture content for microbes in the vadose zone has been determined to be between 10 and 25% (King 16). Besides moisture, nitrogen (ammonia)and phosphorus (orthophosphate) are two major nutrients needed for the microorganisms. The microorganisms also require minor elements such as sulfur, potassium, magnesium,calcium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc (King 19). However, these minor elements are usually available in the environment in sufficient amounts where nitrogen and phosphorus may be lacking and need to be added. There are many contaminants susceptible to bioremediation. Petroleum hydrocarbons, i n particular, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), the major components of gasoline, have been biodegraded using this technology. In addition, alcohols, ketones, and esters are well established as being biodegradable by microorganisms. Many other contaminants are emerging as treatable using bioremediation such as halogenated aliphatics, halogenated aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and nitroaromatics. FACTORS AFFECTING BIOREMEDIATION The factors affecting bioremediation can be divided into following categories. Microbial factors Environmental factors Microbial Factors Microorganisms can be isolated from almost any environmental conditions. Microbes will adapt and grow at subzero temperatures, as well as extreme heat, desert conditions, in water, with an excess of oxygen, and in anaerobic conditions, with the presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream. The main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. Because of the adaptability of microbes and other biological systems, these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. We can subdivide these microorganisms into the following groups Aerobic Anaerobic Ligninolytic Fungi Methylotrophs Aerobic These microbes have often been reported to degrade pesticides and hydrocarbons, both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy. Examples of aerobic bacteria recognized for their degradative abilities are Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium. Anaerobic Anaerobic bacteria are not as frequently used as aerobic bacteria. There is an increasing interest in anaerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in river sediments, dechlorination of the solvent trichloroethylene (TCE), and chloroform. Ligninolytic fungi Fungi such as the white rot fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the ability to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrates used include straw, saw dust, or corn cobs. Methylotrophs Aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. The initial enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane monooxygenase, has a broad substrate range and is active against a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane. For degradation it is necessary that bacteria and the contaminants be in contact. This is not easily achieved, as neither the microbes nor contaminants are uniformly spread in the soil. Some bacteria are mobile and exhibit a chemotactic response, sensing the contaminant and moving toward it. Other microbes such as fungi grow in a filamentous form toward the contaminant. It is possible to enhance the mobilization of the contaminant utilizing some surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) Microbes are used to degrade gasoline, the most common contaminant of groundwater in the United States. Adding powdered seaweed to DDT-contaminated soil boosts the cleaning activity of DDT-eating microbes. In one test site, 80% of the DDT was removed after six weeks. Microbes and fungi are used in air filters to control odours from sewage treatment plants and in the paint industry. A gene for a protein found in rat livers that binds with toxic metals has been inserted in both tobacco plants and algae. With this gene, the tobacco plant and the algae are able to extract several hundred times more toxic metal compounds from soil or water compared to plants without the gene. One particular microbe degrades polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are cancer-causing petroleum by-products. The microbes, called simply sulfate-reducers, are able to attack PAHs in the sediment of Boston Harbor where scientists thought the contaminant could not be treated due to lack of oxygen. Examples of microbes used for bioremediation include: Deinococcus radiodurans bacteria have been genetically modified to digest solvents and heavy metals, as well as toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste. Geobacter sufurreducens bacteria can turn uranium dissolved in groundwater into a non-soluble, collectable form. Dehalococcoides ethenogenes bacteria are being used in ten states to clean up chlorinated solvents that have been linked to cancer. The bacteria are naturally found in both soil and water and are able to digest the solvents much faster than using traditional clean-up methods. Thermus brockianus, found in Yellowstone National Park, produces an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide 80,000 times faster than current chemicals in use. Alcaligenes eutrophus, naturally degrades 2,4-D, the third most widely used herbicide in the U.S. Some contaminants potentially suitable for bioremediation. Class of contaminants Specific examples Aerobic Anaerobic Potential sources Chlorinated solvents Trichloroethylene + Drycleaners Perchloroethylene Chemical manufacture Polychlorinated biphenyls 4-Chlorobiphenyl + Electrical manufacturing 4,4 Dichlorobiphenyl Power station Railway yards Chlorinated phenol Pentachlorophenol + Timber treatment Landfills BTEX Benzene + + Oil production and storage Toluene Gas work sites Ethylbenzene Airports Xylene Paint manufacture Port facilities Railway yards Chemical manufacture Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Naphthalene + Oil production and storage (PAHs) Antracene Gas work sites Fluorene Coke plants Pyrene Engine works Benzo(a)pyrene Landfills Tar production and storage Boiler ash dump sites Power stations Pesticides Atrazine + + Agriculture Carbaryl Timber treatment Carbofuran Pesticide manufacture Coumphos Recreational areas ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 1. Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan ­isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e.g., see Table below). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells.Phosphorous and sulphur contribute with 70% of the remainders. The nutritional requirement of carbon to nitrogen ratio is 10:1, and carbon to phosphorous is 30:1. 3. Environmental requirements Optimum environmental conditions for the degradation of contaminants are reported in Table below: Parameters Condition required for microbial activity Optimum value for an oil degradation Soil moisture 25-28% of water holding capacity 30-90% Soil pH 5.5-8.8 6.5-8.0 Oxygen content Aerobic, minimum air-filled pore space of 10% 10-40% Nutrient content N and p for microbial growth C:N:P = 100:10:1 Temperature ( °C) 15-45 20-30 Contaminants Not too toxic Hydrocarbon 5-10% of dry weight of soil Heavy metals Total content 2000 ppm 700 ppm Type of soil Low clay or silt content 4. Environmental conditions affecting degradation Microbial growth and activity are readily affected by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a nar ­row range, so that it is important to achieve optimal conditions. If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects bio ­chemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them double for each 10  °C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily degraded under aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To increase the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organ ic matter can be applied. Low soil permeability can impede move ­ment of water, nutrients, and oxygen; hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATION Basically two types of techniques are involved in Bioremediation In situ Bioremediation (at the site) Ex situ Bioremediation (away from the site) In situ Bioremediation In situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal disturbance. These techniques are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and fewer disturbances since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. In many soils effective oxygen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a few centimetres to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases. In situ Bioremediation types: Bioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air flow rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatiliza ­tion and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infil ­tration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contam ­inants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there ­by increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diam ­eter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system Bioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: 1) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegrad ­able waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed. Ex situ bioremediation Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Ex situ Bioremediation types: These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a pre ­pared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limited to the treatment of superficial 10-35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much atten ­tion as a disposal alternative. Composting is a technique that involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organ ­ic amendants such as manure or agricultural wastes. The presence of these organic materials supports the development of a rich microbial population and elevated temperature characteristic of composting. Biopiles are a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are con ­structed as aerated composted piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petro ­leum hydrocarbons they are a refined version of landfarming that tend to control physical losses of the contaminants by leaching and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Bioreactors Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the pro ­cessing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered con ­tainment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to cre ­ate a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil-bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of degrading target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre-treatment (e.g., excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be stripped from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e.g., vacuum extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor. Monitoring bioremediation The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological breakdown rate as function of the redox potential. Process Reaction Redox potential (Eh in mV) Aerobic: O2 + 4eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2H2O 600 ~ 400 Anaerobic: Denitrification 2NO3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 10eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 12H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ N2 + 6H2O 500 ~ 200 Manganese IV reduction MnO2 + 2eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Mn2+ + 2H2O 400 ~ 200 Iron III reduction Fe(OH)3 + eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 3H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Fe2+ + 3H2O 300 ~ 100 Sulfate reduction SO42à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 8eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ +10 H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ H2S + 4H2O 0 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 Fermentation 2CH2O à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO2 + CH4 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢220 Types of Bioremediation Bioremediation techniques can be subdivided into various based on following factors Based on type of atmosphere in which Bioremediation takes place it can be divided into two types Engineered Bioremediation Intrinsic Bioremediation Based on Type of organism being used for Bioremediation Mycoremediation Phytoremediation ENGINEERED BIOREMEDIATION Factors effecting engineered bioremediation Contact between the microbes and the substrate Proper physical environment Nutrients Oxygen Absence of toxic compounds Sources of microorganisms From contaminated field sites(with varying environmental conditions subzero temperatures or extreme heat, desert conditions or in water, with excess of oxygen or in anaerobic conditions, with presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream) From culture collections Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) Electro kinetically enhanced bioremediation (EEB) is a method of engineered bioremediation of soil contaminated by such organic compounds as solvents and petroleum products. As depicted schematically in the figure, EEB involves the utilization of controlled flows of liquids and gases into and out of the ground via wells, in conjunction with electrokinetic transport of matter through pores in the soil, to provide reagents and nutrients that enhance the natural degradation of contaminants by indigenous and/or introduced microorganisms. The operational parameters of an EEB setup can be tailored to obtain the desired flows of reagents and nutrients in variably textured and layered soils of variable hydraulic permeability and of moisture content that can range from saturation down to as little as about 7 percent. A major attractive feature of EEB is the ability to control the movements of charged anionic and cationic as well as noncharged chemical species. The basic components of electrokinetic enhancement of bioremediation are the following: * Ions are transported by electromigration; that is, with minimum transport of liquid through the soil. The ions of interest include nutrient agents, electron donors (e.g., lactate) or electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate or sulfate) added to the soil. Electromigration is utilized as an efficient mode of electrokinetic transport in vadosezone soils. * Water in soil is pumped (horizontally or vertically, depending on the positions of electrode wells) by induced electro-osmotic flow. Whereas the hydraulic flow used in older methods decreases with decreasing pore size and is thus not effective for treating tightly packed soil, electro-osmotic flow is less restricted by tight packing. Electro-osmosis is utilized to enhance the transport of both ions and such noncharged particles as micro-organisms, by moving water from anodes (positive electrodes) toward cathodes (negative electrodes). * Electrophoresis induced in soil under an applied electric field is used to control the transport and/or distribution of micro-organisms throughout the treated soil volume. The beneficial effect of electrophoresis can be augmented or otherwise modified by use of electro-osmotic flushing of the soil. * The applied electric current can be utilized to heat the soil to the optimum temperature for bioremediation. * The gaseous and liquid products of electrolysis of water in the soil are removed from electrode wells and mixed and reinjected into the ground as needed to maintain the pH of the soil within a range favorable for bioremediation. Disadvantages Mostly GEMs do not work the way we expect: Lab strains become food source for soil protozoa Inability of GEMs to contact the compounds to be degraded Failure of GEMs to survive/compete indigenous microorganisms. Mostly due to lack / decreased activity of House Keeping Genes. INTRINSIC BIOREMEDIATION It is a natural attenuation process that leads to the decrease in contaminant levels in a particular environment due to unmanaged physical, chemical and biological processes. Conversion of environmental pollutants into the harmless forms through the innate capabilities of naturally occurring microbial population is called intrinsic bioremediation. However, there is increasing interest on intrinsic bioremediation for control of all or some of the contamination at waste sites. The intrinsic i.e. inherent capacity of microorganism, to metabolize the contaminants should be tested at laboratory and field levels before use for intrinsic bioremediation. Through site monitoring programmes progress of intrinsic bioremediation should be recorded time to time. The conditions of site that favours intrinsic bioremediation are ground water flow throughout the year, carbonate minerals to buffer acidity produced during biodegradation supply of electron acceptors and nutrients for microbial growth and absence of toxic compounds. The other environmental factors such as pH concentration, temperature and nutrient availability determine whether or not biotransformation takes place. Bioremediation of waste mixtures containing metals such as Hg, Pb, As and cyanide at toxic concentration can create problem (Madsen, l99l). The ability of surface bacteria to degrade a given mixture of pollutants in ground water is dependent on the type and concentration of compounds, electron acceptor and duration of bacteria exposed to contaminants. Therefore, ability of indigenous bacteria degrading contaminants can be determined in laboratory by plate count and macrocosm studies Example: Microbes in Hudson River mud developed an ability to partially degrade PCB (Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls) Process occurs in two steps Partial dehalogenation of PCBs occurs naturally under anaerobic conditions Less chlorinated residues Then mud is aerated to promote the complete degradation of these less chlorinated residues MYCOREMEDIATION Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation, the process of using fungi to return an environment (usually soil) contaminated by pollutants to a less contaminated state. The term Mycoremediation was coined by Paul Stam